1
00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:01,000
cc 

2
00:00:01,000 --> 00:00:02,000
>> Robert Streiffer: I am 

3
00:00:02,000 --> 00:00:03,000
a member of the planning 

4
00:00:03,000 --> 00:00:04,000
committee for this series of 

5
00:00:04,000 --> 00:00:05,000
talks, and it is my pleasure to 

6
00:00:05,000 --> 00:00:06,000
introduce our speaker tonight, 

7
00:00:06,000 --> 00:00:08,000
Dr. Charles Snowdon. 

8
00:00:08,000 --> 00:00:09,000
A little bit of background and 

9
00:00:09,000 --> 00:00:11,000
then I'll turn the floor over to 

10
00:00:11,000 --> 00:00:13,000
him, and we should have plenty 

11
00:00:13,000 --> 00:00:14,000
of time after his official 

12
00:00:14,000 --> 00:00:17,000
presentation for Q&A. 

13
00:00:17,000 --> 00:00:18,000
Professor Snowdon received his 

14
00:00:18,000 --> 00:00:20,000
BA from Oberlin College and his 

15
00:00:20,000 --> 00:00:21,000
PhD from the University of 

16
00:00:21,000 --> 00:00:23,000
Pennsylvania. 

17
00:00:23,000 --> 00:00:24,000
He taught here at UW Madison 

18
00:00:24,000 --> 00:00:27,000
since 1969. 

19
00:00:27,000 --> 00:00:28,000
He held an NIH Research 

20
00:00:28,000 --> 00:00:31,000
Scientist Award for 23 years and 

21
00:00:31,000 --> 00:00:33,000
has been awarded two named 

22
00:00:33,000 --> 00:00:35,000
professorships here at UW, 

23
00:00:35,000 --> 00:00:37,000
a WARF University Houses 

24
00:00:37,000 --> 00:00:39,000
Professorship and the Hilldale 

25
00:00:39,000 --> 00:00:41,000
Professorship. 

26
00:00:41,000 --> 00:00:43,000
His research grant supported a 

27
00:00:43,000 --> 00:00:45,000
colony of endangered monkeys for 

28
00:00:45,000 --> 00:00:47,000
more than 30 years, and he is 

29
00:00:47,000 --> 00:00:48,000
one of the few psychologists who 

30
00:00:48,000 --> 00:00:50,000
has done extensive field work on 

31
00:00:50,000 --> 00:00:51,000
the species that he also studies 

32
00:00:51,000 --> 00:00:53,000
in captivity. 

33
00:00:53,000 --> 00:00:55,000
He supervised a wide range of 

34
00:00:55,000 --> 00:00:57,000
student projects out in the 

35
00:00:57,000 --> 00:01:00,000
field that ranged from research 

36
00:01:00,000 --> 00:01:01,000
on mountain gorillas in Rwanda, 

37
00:01:01,000 --> 00:01:04,000
to chimpanzees in Tanzania to 

38
00:01:04,000 --> 00:01:06,000
cotton-top tamarins in Colombia 

39
00:01:06,000 --> 00:01:09,000
to pygmy marmosets in Ecuador, 

40
00:01:09,000 --> 00:01:11,000
to common marmosets in Brazil 

41
00:01:11,000 --> 00:01:13,000
and even southern right whales 

42
00:01:13,000 --> 00:01:15,000
off of Argentina. 

43
00:01:15,000 --> 00:01:17,000
Professor Snowdon served a 

44
00:01:17,000 --> 00:01:20,000
three-year term as editor of 

45
00:01:20,000 --> 00:01:22,000
Animal Behavior and subsequently 

46
00:01:22,000 --> 00:01:23,000
served a six-year term as editor 

47
00:01:23,000 --> 00:01:24,000
of the Journal of Comparative 

48
00:01:24,000 --> 00:01:26,000
Psychology. 

49
00:01:26,000 --> 00:01:28,000
He's been associate editor of 

50
00:01:28,000 --> 00:01:29,000
several journals including 

51
00:01:29,000 --> 00:01:31,000
Behavior, the International 

52
00:01:31,000 --> 00:01:32,000
Journal of Primatology and also 

53
00:01:32,000 --> 00:01:34,000
Advances in the Study of 

54
00:01:34,000 --> 00:01:35,000
Behavior. 

55
00:01:35,000 --> 00:01:36,000
He's also served on numerous 

56
00:01:36,000 --> 00:01:39,000
editorial boards including the 

57
00:01:39,000 --> 00:01:40,000
American Journal of Primatology, 

58
00:01:40,000 --> 00:01:42,000
the International Journal of 

59
00:01:42,000 --> 00:01:44,000
Primatology, Primates, and now I 

60
00:01:44,000 --> 00:01:46,000
have to say this with a French 

61
00:01:46,000 --> 00:01:47,000
flair, Primatologie. 

62
00:01:47,000 --> 00:01:50,000
>> Primatologie, oui. 

63
00:01:50,000 --> 00:01:51,000
>> He's edited over a dozen 

64
00:01:51,000 --> 00:01:53,000
books including Primate 

65
00:01:53,000 --> 00:01:54,000
Communication and Social 

66
00:01:54,000 --> 00:01:57,000
Influences on Vocal Development. 

67
00:01:57,000 --> 00:01:59,000
He served on the American 

68
00:01:59,000 --> 00:02:00,000
Psychological Association's 

69
00:02:00,000 --> 00:02:01,000
committee on animal research and 

70
00:02:01,000 --> 00:02:03,000
ethics. 

71
00:02:03,000 --> 00:02:04,000
And he was an invited member to 

72
00:02:04,000 --> 00:02:05,000
the National Research Council 

73
00:02:05,000 --> 00:02:07,000
Committee that developed the 

74
00:02:07,000 --> 00:02:09,000
official national guidelines for 

75
00:02:09,000 --> 00:02:10,000
psychological well-being of 

76
00:02:10,000 --> 00:02:12,000
nonhuman primates. 

77
00:02:12,000 --> 00:02:14,000
And he's also served as 

78
00:02:14,000 --> 00:02:15,000
president of the Animal Behavior 

79
00:02:15,000 --> 00:02:17,000
Society. 

80
00:02:17,000 --> 00:02:18,000
More locally, he served as a 

81
00:02:18,000 --> 00:02:20,000
member of the Letters and 

82
00:02:20,000 --> 00:02:21,000
Science Animal Care and Use 

83
00:02:21,000 --> 00:02:22,000
Committee here at UW for six 

84
00:02:22,000 --> 00:02:24,000
years, and he chaired, in 

85
00:02:24,000 --> 00:02:25,000
addition to that, he chaired the 

86
00:02:25,000 --> 00:02:26,000
committee for another seven 

87
00:02:26,000 --> 00:02:28,000
years. 

88
00:02:28,000 --> 00:02:30,000
So a lot of local experience and 

89
00:02:30,000 --> 00:02:32,000
national experience as well. 

90
00:02:32,000 --> 00:02:34,000
And just before I turn the mic 

91
00:02:34,000 --> 00:02:35,000
over to Professor Snowdon, I'd 

92
00:02:35,000 --> 00:02:37,000
like to remind the audience that 

93
00:02:37,000 --> 00:02:39,000
our next speaker in the series 

94
00:02:39,000 --> 00:02:40,000
is going to be Professor Gary 

95
00:02:40,000 --> 00:02:41,000
Varner who is a bioethicist from 

96
00:02:41,000 --> 00:02:43,000
Texas A&M, and he's going to be 

97
00:02:43,000 --> 00:02:46,000
discussing personhood, ethics, 

98
00:02:46,000 --> 00:02:47,000
and the cognitive capacities of 

99
00:02:47,000 --> 00:02:49,000
animals. 

100
00:02:49,000 --> 00:02:51,000
And that talk will be here in 

101
00:02:51,000 --> 00:02:52,000
this room at 7:00 PM next Monday 

102
00:02:52,000 --> 00:02:54,000
on April 4th, and we hope you 

103
00:02:54,000 --> 00:02:55,000
can make it. 

104
00:02:55,000 --> 00:02:57,000
And now, without further ado, 

105
00:02:57,000 --> 00:02:58,000
Professor Snowdon. 

106
00:02:58,000 --> 00:03:02,000
[APPLAUSE] 

107
00:03:02,000 --> 00:03:04,000
>> Charles Snowdon: Thank you 

108
00:03:04,000 --> 00:03:05,000
very much, Rob. 

109
00:03:05,000 --> 00:03:06,000
It's a great pleasure to be 

110
00:03:06,000 --> 00:03:08,000
here, and I apologize that my 

111
00:03:08,000 --> 00:03:10,000
voice is not the best. 

112
00:03:10,000 --> 00:03:13,000
I had to lecture this afternoon. 

113
00:03:13,000 --> 00:03:14,000
>> Sorry, could you mute the mic 

114
00:03:14,000 --> 00:03:16,000
with the bottom button? 

115
00:03:16,000 --> 00:03:17,000
>> Okay. 

116
00:03:17,000 --> 00:03:19,000
Did that work? 

117
00:03:19,000 --> 00:03:20,000
So what I'd like to do today is 

118
00:03:20,000 --> 00:03:22,000
to tell you about some research 

119
00:03:22,000 --> 00:03:23,000
that my colleagues and I have 

120
00:03:23,000 --> 00:03:25,000
done with a really interesting 

121
00:03:25,000 --> 00:03:26,000
species of cotton-top tamarin. 

122
00:03:26,000 --> 00:03:28,000
And I want to talk about the 

123
00:03:28,000 --> 00:03:30,000
cotton-top tamarin both from a 

124
00:03:30,000 --> 00:03:31,000
conservation perspective and why 

125
00:03:31,000 --> 00:03:32,000
research is important to help 

126
00:03:32,000 --> 00:03:34,000
conserve endangered species and 

127
00:03:34,000 --> 00:03:35,000
also to talk about some 

128
00:03:35,000 --> 00:03:37,000
interesting aspects about 

129
00:03:37,000 --> 00:03:38,000
cotton-tops that I think should 

130
00:03:38,000 --> 00:03:40,000
be appealing to humans as well. 

131
00:03:40,000 --> 00:03:42,000
So, first of all, I want you 

132
00:03:42,000 --> 00:03:43,000
just to imagine what perceptions 

133
00:03:43,000 --> 00:03:45,000
you have about primate research, 

134
00:03:45,000 --> 00:03:47,000
and what I'd like to do is 

135
00:03:47,000 --> 00:03:49,000
hopefully overcome some typical 

136
00:03:49,000 --> 00:03:50,000
perceptions about primate 

137
00:03:50,000 --> 00:03:52,000
research and present you with 

138
00:03:52,000 --> 00:03:53,000
some other ways to think about 

139
00:03:53,000 --> 00:03:55,000
primates and other ways we can 

140
00:03:55,000 --> 00:03:56,000
be studying primates in the 

141
00:03:56,000 --> 00:03:58,000
captivity. 

142
00:03:58,000 --> 00:03:59,000
The species I'm going to talk 

143
00:03:59,000 --> 00:04:00,000
about and focus on tonight and 

144
00:04:00,000 --> 00:04:01,000
the cotton-top tamarin. 

145
00:04:01,000 --> 00:04:03,000
It's cute in these pictures, 

146
00:04:03,000 --> 00:04:04,000
which were taken by a colleague 

147
00:04:04,000 --> 00:04:06,000
of mine, Carla Boe. 

148
00:04:06,000 --> 00:04:08,000
All the captive pictures are 

149
00:04:08,000 --> 00:04:09,000
from her. 

150
00:04:09,000 --> 00:04:10,000
Their official name is Saguinus 

151
00:04:10,000 --> 00:04:12,000
oedipus, and that's not just 

152
00:04:12,000 --> 00:04:14,000
because they have kinky sex with 

153
00:04:14,000 --> 00:04:15,000
their mothers, which they don't, 

154
00:04:15,000 --> 00:04:17,000
but as you recall from reading 

155
00:04:17,000 --> 00:04:19,000
the Oedipus myth, you probably 

156
00:04:19,000 --> 00:04:20,000
remember that Oedipus had a club 

157
00:04:20,000 --> 00:04:21,000
foot. 

158
00:04:21,000 --> 00:04:23,000
And if you notice these guys, 

159
00:04:23,000 --> 00:04:25,000
they have seemingly bigger than 

160
00:04:25,000 --> 00:04:27,000
normal feet. 

161
00:04:27,000 --> 00:04:28,000
They are native to Colombia, and 

162
00:04:28,000 --> 00:04:29,000
I'll say more about their 

163
00:04:29,000 --> 00:04:31,000
natural history in just a bit. 

164
00:04:31,000 --> 00:04:32,000
I'll say about it now. 

165
00:04:32,000 --> 00:04:34,000
They're natives South America, a 

166
00:04:34,000 --> 00:04:35,000
small area of northern Colombia. 

167
00:04:35,000 --> 00:04:37,000
They have small bodies. 

168
00:04:37,000 --> 00:04:39,000
They weigh about 500 to 650 

169
00:04:39,000 --> 00:04:40,000
grams. 

170
00:04:40,000 --> 00:04:42,000
So a pound to a pound and a 

171
00:04:42,000 --> 00:04:43,000
half. 

172
00:04:43,000 --> 00:04:45,000
In the wild they live in trees 

173
00:04:45,000 --> 00:04:46,000
eating fruits, insects, lizards, 

174
00:04:46,000 --> 00:04:48,000
and gum. 

175
00:04:48,000 --> 00:04:50,000
One of my graduate students, her 

176
00:04:50,000 --> 00:04:52,000
husband was studying lizards at 

177
00:04:52,000 --> 00:04:54,000
the same site as a related 

178
00:04:54,000 --> 00:04:56,000
species and we had marital 

179
00:04:56,000 --> 00:04:58,000
discord one day when her 

180
00:04:58,000 --> 00:05:00,000
marmosets were stalking and 

181
00:05:00,000 --> 00:05:02,000
trying to eat his lizards. 

182
00:05:02,000 --> 00:05:04,000
But they do eat lizards and 

183
00:05:04,000 --> 00:05:06,000
insects in the field. 

184
00:05:06,000 --> 00:05:08,000
Mothers give birth to twins, and 

185
00:05:08,000 --> 00:05:09,000
this is a singular part about 

186
00:05:09,000 --> 00:05:11,000
their biology that's really 

187
00:05:11,000 --> 00:05:12,000
important because the twins 

188
00:05:12,000 --> 00:05:13,000
together at birth weigh about 

189
00:05:13,000 --> 00:05:15,000
20% of the mother's weight. 

190
00:05:15,000 --> 00:05:17,000
So imagine 130-pound woman 

191
00:05:17,000 --> 00:05:18,000
giving birth to two 13-pound 

192
00:05:18,000 --> 00:05:20,000
babies. 

193
00:05:20,000 --> 00:05:21,000
That's the equivalent of the 

194
00:05:21,000 --> 00:05:22,000
birth effort that mothers go 

195
00:05:22,000 --> 00:05:24,000
through. 

196
00:05:24,000 --> 00:05:26,000
Females can seed shortly after 

197
00:05:26,000 --> 00:05:27,000
giving birth, four to six weeks 

198
00:05:27,000 --> 00:05:28,000
after they give birth, and I 

199
00:05:28,000 --> 00:05:31,000
think these guys are very smart 

200
00:05:31,000 --> 00:05:32,000
and very intelligent and I'll 

201
00:05:32,000 --> 00:05:34,000
talk about that later on in the 

202
00:05:34,000 --> 00:05:36,000
talk, but I think what has 

203
00:05:36,000 --> 00:05:38,000
surprised me about them is that 

204
00:05:38,000 --> 00:05:39,000
they have not been smart enough 

205
00:05:39,000 --> 00:05:41,000
to learn to build nests so that 

206
00:05:41,000 --> 00:05:42,000
means the babies have to be 

207
00:05:42,000 --> 00:05:44,000
carried constantly. 

208
00:05:44,000 --> 00:05:45,000
And estimates of how far they 

209
00:05:45,000 --> 00:05:47,000
travel in the wild or estimates 

210
00:05:47,000 --> 00:05:49,000
about two kilometers a day, and 

211
00:05:49,000 --> 00:05:51,000
that's two kilometers a day on 

212
00:05:51,000 --> 00:05:52,000
the ground but, in fact, these 

213
00:05:52,000 --> 00:05:54,000
animals are arboreal and they 

214
00:05:54,000 --> 00:05:56,000
move up and down in the trees. 

215
00:05:56,000 --> 00:05:57,000
So they cover quite a lot of 

216
00:05:57,000 --> 00:05:58,000
ground and carrying two heavy 

217
00:05:58,000 --> 00:06:00,000
infants and nursing them while 

218
00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:02,000
you're simultaneously pregnant 

219
00:06:02,000 --> 00:06:04,000
with your next set of kids 

220
00:06:04,000 --> 00:06:05,000
creates some interesting 

221
00:06:05,000 --> 00:06:07,000
biological problems for them. 

222
00:06:07,000 --> 00:06:08,000
They're called cooperative 

223
00:06:08,000 --> 00:06:10,000
breeders and cooperative 

224
00:06:10,000 --> 00:06:12,000
breeding is a breeding system 

225
00:06:12,000 --> 00:06:14,000
where fathers, older siblings, 

226
00:06:14,000 --> 00:06:15,000
and unrelated individuals can 

227
00:06:15,000 --> 00:06:16,000
work together to help take care 

228
00:06:16,000 --> 00:06:18,000
of infants. 

229
00:06:18,000 --> 00:06:20,000
Typically, cooperative breeders 

230
00:06:20,000 --> 00:06:21,000
are characterized by limited 

231
00:06:21,000 --> 00:06:22,000
reproduction. 

232
00:06:22,000 --> 00:06:24,000
Only a single female, and 

233
00:06:24,000 --> 00:06:25,000
oftentimes a single male, 

234
00:06:25,000 --> 00:06:27,000
breeds. 

235
00:06:27,000 --> 00:06:28,000
This is a relatively unusual 

236
00:06:28,000 --> 00:06:29,000
breeding system for nonhuman 

237
00:06:29,000 --> 00:06:30,000
primates, so it's relatively 

238
00:06:30,000 --> 00:06:32,000
common in birds. 

239
00:06:32,000 --> 00:06:34,000
But it is said by some 

240
00:06:34,000 --> 00:06:35,000
biological anthropologists to be 

241
00:06:35,000 --> 00:06:37,000
the breeding system that's 

242
00:06:37,000 --> 00:06:38,000
typical for humans. 

243
00:06:38,000 --> 00:06:39,000
That is, we humans cannot 

244
00:06:39,000 --> 00:06:41,000
reproduce successfully without 

245
00:06:41,000 --> 00:06:43,000
having help of some sort, and 

246
00:06:43,000 --> 00:06:45,000
whether the family to raise the 

247
00:06:45,000 --> 00:06:47,000
child, whether it's the extended 

248
00:06:47,000 --> 00:06:49,000
family, or whether we pay for 

249
00:06:49,000 --> 00:06:50,000
childcare, we have to have 

250
00:06:50,000 --> 00:06:52,000
someone to provide some help 

251
00:06:52,000 --> 00:06:54,000
along the way in order to rear 

252
00:06:54,000 --> 00:06:56,000
infants successfully. 

253
00:06:56,000 --> 00:06:57,000
So tamarins and marmosets, their 

254
00:06:57,000 --> 00:06:59,000
close relatives, are possible 

255
00:06:59,000 --> 00:07:00,000
primate models for the study of 

256
00:07:00,000 --> 00:07:02,000
affiliation, pair bonds, and 

257
00:07:02,000 --> 00:07:03,000
cooperative care, all of which 

258
00:07:03,000 --> 00:07:05,000
are aspects of family life that 

259
00:07:05,000 --> 00:07:06,000
I think these animals can tell 

260
00:07:06,000 --> 00:07:07,000
us something about. 

261
00:07:07,000 --> 00:07:10,000
So I want to pose some questions 

262
00:07:10,000 --> 00:07:12,000
that I want to try to touch on 

263
00:07:12,000 --> 00:07:14,000
today about why are cotton-top 

264
00:07:14,000 --> 00:07:16,000
tamarins interesting. 

265
00:07:16,000 --> 00:07:18,000
They're monogamous, at least 

266
00:07:18,000 --> 00:07:20,000
serially monogamous the way most 

267
00:07:20,000 --> 00:07:21,000
of us are throughout our lives. 

268
00:07:21,000 --> 00:07:23,000
They may have multiple partners 

269
00:07:23,000 --> 00:07:25,000
throughout their life, but at 

270
00:07:25,000 --> 00:07:26,000
any one time, we find from 

271
00:07:26,000 --> 00:07:27,000
studies in the field, they are 

272
00:07:27,000 --> 00:07:29,000
only mated with a single 

273
00:07:29,000 --> 00:07:31,000
partner. 

274
00:07:31,000 --> 00:07:32,000
What hormones might be involved 

275
00:07:32,000 --> 00:07:34,000
in maintaining monogamy or 

276
00:07:34,000 --> 00:07:35,000
helping animals get together and 

277
00:07:35,000 --> 00:07:37,000
form a close relationship? 

278
00:07:37,000 --> 00:07:39,000
One of the interesting 

279
00:07:39,000 --> 00:07:40,000
characteristics about 

280
00:07:40,000 --> 00:07:42,000
cooperative breeding is that 

281
00:07:42,000 --> 00:07:43,000
fathers and older brothers, in 

282
00:07:43,000 --> 00:07:44,000
particular, become good infant 

283
00:07:44,000 --> 00:07:45,000
care givers. 

284
00:07:45,000 --> 00:07:47,000
So what's the role of learning 

285
00:07:47,000 --> 00:07:48,000
to be a parent and how does that 

286
00:07:48,000 --> 00:07:50,000
occur? 

287
00:07:50,000 --> 00:07:52,000
What is the role of hormones and 

288
00:07:52,000 --> 00:07:53,000
priming a male to become a good 

289
00:07:53,000 --> 00:07:54,000
caretaker? 

290
00:07:54,000 --> 00:07:56,000
How do parents keep other 

291
00:07:56,000 --> 00:07:57,000
animals from breeding? 

292
00:07:57,000 --> 00:07:58,000
How does a female maintain her 

293
00:07:58,000 --> 00:08:00,000
own reproductive sovereignty and 

294
00:08:00,000 --> 00:08:01,000
prevent other animals from 

295
00:08:01,000 --> 00:08:03,000
breeding? 

296
00:08:03,000 --> 00:08:05,000
And finally, a question that's 

297
00:08:05,000 --> 00:08:07,000
occupied us in the last several 

298
00:08:07,000 --> 00:08:08,000
years before a colony was 

299
00:08:08,000 --> 00:08:10,000
closed, is how does cooperative 

300
00:08:10,000 --> 00:08:12,000
breeding lead to better social 

301
00:08:12,000 --> 00:08:13,000
learning and better corporation 

302
00:08:13,000 --> 00:08:15,000
with others? 

303
00:08:15,000 --> 00:08:18,000
I'll try to report some data 

304
00:08:18,000 --> 00:08:19,000
later that I think shows some 

305
00:08:19,000 --> 00:08:21,000
really interesting differences 

306
00:08:21,000 --> 00:08:23,000
between our closest relatives, 

307
00:08:23,000 --> 00:08:24,000
chimpanzees, and these 

308
00:08:24,000 --> 00:08:26,000
cooperatively breeding tamarins 

309
00:08:26,000 --> 00:08:28,000
which have a lot of other 

310
00:08:28,000 --> 00:08:29,000
interesting characteristics that 

311
00:08:29,000 --> 00:08:31,000
animals like chimpanzees do not 

312
00:08:31,000 --> 00:08:33,000
have. 

313
00:08:33,000 --> 00:08:34,000
But before I answer these 

314
00:08:34,000 --> 00:08:36,000
questions, let's take a trip to 

315
00:08:36,000 --> 00:08:37,000
northern Colombia and visit the 

316
00:08:37,000 --> 00:08:39,000
animals in the wild and see what 

317
00:08:39,000 --> 00:08:41,000
their habitat is like. 

318
00:08:41,000 --> 00:08:42,000
I guess I want to first of all 

319
00:08:42,000 --> 00:08:44,000
mention that I'm an accidental 

320
00:08:44,000 --> 00:08:45,000
primatologist. 

321
00:08:45,000 --> 00:08:47,000
I inherited the colony of 

322
00:08:47,000 --> 00:08:49,000
monkeys that I began working 

323
00:08:49,000 --> 00:08:50,000
with from a colleague who could 

324
00:08:50,000 --> 00:08:52,000
no longer support them in 

325
00:08:52,000 --> 00:08:54,000
Berkeley. 

326
00:08:54,000 --> 00:08:56,000
So I didn't start out with the 

327
00:08:56,000 --> 00:08:58,000
plan that I was going to study 

328
00:08:58,000 --> 00:08:59,000
primate behavior, but I saw 

329
00:08:59,000 --> 00:09:00,000
these animals and they caught my 

330
00:09:00,000 --> 00:09:02,000
eye, they caught my attention, 

331
00:09:02,000 --> 00:09:04,000
there were lots of interesting 

332
00:09:04,000 --> 00:09:05,000
things about them that made them 

333
00:09:05,000 --> 00:09:06,000
very exciting and very 

334
00:09:06,000 --> 00:09:07,000
interesting to want to learn 

335
00:09:07,000 --> 00:09:09,000
about further. 

336
00:09:09,000 --> 00:09:10,000
So what I want to talk about 

337
00:09:10,000 --> 00:09:11,000
next is how easy are they to 

338
00:09:11,000 --> 00:09:12,000
study in the wild? 

339
00:09:12,000 --> 00:09:14,000
What's their current 

340
00:09:14,000 --> 00:09:15,000
conservation status? 

341
00:09:15,000 --> 00:09:16,000
How many remain and how does 

342
00:09:16,000 --> 00:09:18,000
captive breeding fit in as a way 

343
00:09:18,000 --> 00:09:20,000
of conservation? 

344
00:09:20,000 --> 00:09:21,000
So let me, first of all, let you 

345
00:09:21,000 --> 00:09:22,000
take a few minute to find the 

346
00:09:22,000 --> 00:09:23,000
cotton-top tamarin in this 

347
00:09:23,000 --> 00:09:26,000
picture. 

348
00:09:26,000 --> 00:09:27,000
If you were a field biologist 

349
00:09:27,000 --> 00:09:28,000
this is actually a good time to 

350
00:09:28,000 --> 00:09:29,000
look at these animals because 

351
00:09:29,000 --> 00:09:30,000
it's the dry season and most of 

352
00:09:30,000 --> 00:09:32,000
the leaves are off the trees, 

353
00:09:32,000 --> 00:09:33,000
so, in fact, the monkeys are 

354
00:09:33,000 --> 00:09:35,000
very visible in this time of the 

355
00:09:35,000 --> 00:09:36,000
year. 

356
00:09:36,000 --> 00:09:38,000
So how many of you have found 

357
00:09:38,000 --> 00:09:40,000
the monkey? 

358
00:09:40,000 --> 00:09:41,000
This is what it would be like if 

359
00:09:41,000 --> 00:09:42,000
you were studying these animals 

360
00:09:42,000 --> 00:09:43,000
in the wild. 

361
00:09:43,000 --> 00:09:44,000
Where are the monkeys? 

362
00:09:44,000 --> 00:09:45,000
Where are you going to find 

363
00:09:45,000 --> 00:09:46,000
them? 

364
00:09:46,000 --> 00:09:47,000
How are you going to identify 

365
00:09:47,000 --> 00:09:49,000
them as individuals? 

366
00:09:49,000 --> 00:09:50,000
Anyone find them yet? 

367
00:09:50,000 --> 00:09:51,000
Anyone think they found it? 

368
00:09:51,000 --> 00:09:54,000
Let's draw a circle around it so 

369
00:09:54,000 --> 00:09:57,000
you can see it. 

370
00:09:57,000 --> 00:10:00,000
Now if you look really closely, 

371
00:10:00,000 --> 00:10:02,000
you can see the same sort of 

372
00:10:02,000 --> 00:10:04,000
monkey that I showed you the 

373
00:10:04,000 --> 00:10:05,000
close up picture of earlier. 

374
00:10:05,000 --> 00:10:09,000
So had a field study going on at 

375
00:10:09,000 --> 00:10:11,000
Colombia for several years, and 

376
00:10:11,000 --> 00:10:14,000
let me show the area of Colombia 

377
00:10:14,000 --> 00:10:17,000
where our animals are located. 

378
00:10:17,000 --> 00:10:19,000
This is northern Colombia. 

379
00:10:19,000 --> 00:10:21,000
Here's Colombia, Venezuela, 

380
00:10:21,000 --> 00:10:24,000
Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and we're 

381
00:10:24,000 --> 00:10:25,000
seeing that just in a very small 

382
00:10:25,000 --> 00:10:27,000
area of northern Colombia is 

383
00:10:27,000 --> 00:10:29,000
where these animals are located. 

384
00:10:29,000 --> 00:10:30,000
The two big cities on the 

385
00:10:30,000 --> 00:10:32,000
Caribbean coast, Barranquilla 

386
00:10:32,000 --> 00:10:34,000
and Cartagena, which have huge 

387
00:10:34,000 --> 00:10:35,000
numbers of people living in 

388
00:10:35,000 --> 00:10:37,000
them, over a million people 

389
00:10:37,000 --> 00:10:39,000
each, we worked in a field site 

390
00:10:39,000 --> 00:10:41,000
in Sincelejo for several years, 

391
00:10:41,000 --> 00:10:42,000
about six years, and then were 

392
00:10:42,000 --> 00:10:44,000
finally driven out by some 

393
00:10:44,000 --> 00:10:46,000
guerillas. 

394
00:10:46,000 --> 00:10:47,000
So one of the problems about 

395
00:10:47,000 --> 00:10:49,000
working in Colombia is that it 

396
00:10:49,000 --> 00:10:51,000
doesn't have the same sort of 

397
00:10:51,000 --> 00:10:52,000
civil society that we're 

398
00:10:52,000 --> 00:10:54,000
accustomed to in the United 

399
00:10:54,000 --> 00:10:55,000
States. 

400
00:10:55,000 --> 00:10:56,000
And so these orange areas, the 

401
00:10:56,000 --> 00:10:58,000
orange outlined areas on this 

402
00:10:58,000 --> 00:10:59,000
map, are areas that are not safe 

403
00:10:59,000 --> 00:11:01,000
for people to visit unless 

404
00:11:01,000 --> 00:11:03,000
you're part of the 

405
00:11:03,000 --> 00:11:05,000
narcotraficantes or part of the 

406
00:11:05,000 --> 00:11:06,000
guerillas who are working in 

407
00:11:06,000 --> 00:11:07,000
Colombia. 

408
00:11:07,000 --> 00:11:09,000
And our field site near 

409
00:11:09,000 --> 00:11:10,000
Sincelejo is now part of this 

410
00:11:10,000 --> 00:11:11,000
area that is no longer a place 

411
00:11:11,000 --> 00:11:13,000
where we can go. 

412
00:11:13,000 --> 00:11:16,000
The green areas show forest that 

413
00:11:16,000 --> 00:11:18,000
was determined from satellite 

414
00:11:18,000 --> 00:11:21,000
photographs in the year 2000. 

415
00:11:21,000 --> 00:11:23,000
So just 11 years ago, the green 

416
00:11:23,000 --> 00:11:24,000
areas represent the forest that 

417
00:11:24,000 --> 00:11:26,000
visible then from satellites. 

418
00:11:26,000 --> 00:11:29,000
The dark green dots, you can see 

419
00:11:29,000 --> 00:11:31,000
scattered around here, are the 

420
00:11:31,000 --> 00:11:33,000
forest areas that are suitable 

421
00:11:33,000 --> 00:11:35,000
for supporting cotton-top 

422
00:11:35,000 --> 00:11:38,000
tamarins found in 2006 and 2007. 

423
00:11:38,000 --> 00:11:40,000
So how many of the dark green 

424
00:11:40,000 --> 00:11:42,000
areas can you identify and where 

425
00:11:42,000 --> 00:11:44,000
are they located? 

426
00:11:44,000 --> 00:11:45,000
So one of the problems we face 

427
00:11:45,000 --> 00:11:49,000
is we can't, it's hard to create 

428
00:11:49,000 --> 00:11:50,000
a conservation area in Colombia 

429
00:11:50,000 --> 00:11:52,000
when you have areas of civil 

430
00:11:52,000 --> 00:11:54,000
unrest, and an area where we 

431
00:11:54,000 --> 00:11:56,000
tried some conservation work 

432
00:11:56,000 --> 00:11:57,000
near Sincelejo is now out of 

433
00:11:57,000 --> 00:11:59,000
bounds to outsiders. 

434
00:11:59,000 --> 00:12:01,000
You can see very small areas of 

435
00:12:01,000 --> 00:12:03,000
dark green, and what this leads 

436
00:12:03,000 --> 00:12:05,000
to is then a question we could 

437
00:12:05,000 --> 00:12:07,000
ask is, how many monkeys are 

438
00:12:07,000 --> 00:12:08,000
left and what is their status in 

439
00:12:08,000 --> 00:12:10,000
the wild? 

440
00:12:10,000 --> 00:12:11,000
Anne Savage, a former 

441
00:12:11,000 --> 00:12:13,000
undergraduate and graduate 

442
00:12:13,000 --> 00:12:14,000
student of mine, published a 

443
00:12:14,000 --> 00:12:16,000
paper in Nature last year that 

444
00:12:16,000 --> 00:12:17,000
provides some information about 

445
00:12:17,000 --> 00:12:19,000
these animals. 

446
00:12:19,000 --> 00:12:20,000
So let me, first of all, 

447
00:12:20,000 --> 00:12:22,000
indicate that some of their 

448
00:12:22,000 --> 00:12:23,000
habitat loss has occurred from 

449
00:12:23,000 --> 00:12:24,000
farming. 

450
00:12:24,000 --> 00:12:26,000
These are very recent pictures 

451
00:12:26,000 --> 00:12:27,000
taken in Colombia in the areas 

452
00:12:27,000 --> 00:12:28,000
where cotton-tops live. 

453
00:12:28,000 --> 00:12:30,000
We have logging that goes on and 

454
00:12:30,000 --> 00:12:33,000
we have wood being collected for 

455
00:12:33,000 --> 00:12:34,000
charcoal production as an energy 

456
00:12:34,000 --> 00:12:37,000
source for people to cook. 

457
00:12:37,000 --> 00:12:40,000
Anne Savage making use of a 

458
00:12:40,000 --> 00:12:41,000
technique that Patricia 

459
00:12:41,000 --> 00:12:44,000
McConnell and I devised 25 or so 

460
00:12:44,000 --> 00:12:46,000
years ago. 

461
00:12:46,000 --> 00:12:48,000
We found that in captivity if 

462
00:12:48,000 --> 00:12:50,000
animals heard the vocalizations 

463
00:12:50,000 --> 00:12:51,000
of a stranger, they would 

464
00:12:51,000 --> 00:12:53,000
vocalize in response to the 

465
00:12:53,000 --> 00:12:55,000
strange calls. 

466
00:12:55,000 --> 00:12:56,000
And what Anne Savage did was to 

467
00:12:56,000 --> 00:12:58,000
take this technique and have 

468
00:12:58,000 --> 00:12:59,000
teams go into the field making 

469
00:12:59,000 --> 00:13:01,000
these transects across the areas 

470
00:13:01,000 --> 00:13:03,000
where cotton-tops live and every 

471
00:13:03,000 --> 00:13:04,000
10 meters they would stop and 

472
00:13:04,000 --> 00:13:06,000
play back the call of a strange 

473
00:13:06,000 --> 00:13:09,000
monkey and they could keep track 

474
00:13:09,000 --> 00:13:10,000
then to how many times did they 

475
00:13:10,000 --> 00:13:12,000
hear answers to those calls and 

476
00:13:12,000 --> 00:13:13,000
how many different answers did 

477
00:13:13,000 --> 00:13:14,000
they hear? 

478
00:13:14,000 --> 00:13:16,000
And using this they surveyed 45 

479
00:13:16,000 --> 00:13:19,000
patches, which they published 

480
00:13:19,000 --> 00:13:21,000
last year, representing 27% of 

481
00:13:21,000 --> 00:13:22,000
the area that they can get 

482
00:13:22,000 --> 00:13:24,000
access to. 

483
00:13:24,000 --> 00:13:25,000
And they found that there are 

484
00:13:25,000 --> 00:13:28,000
approximately 2,045 tamarins 

485
00:13:28,000 --> 00:13:31,000
left in this area. 

486
00:13:31,000 --> 00:13:33,000
There's a range of error in 

487
00:13:33,000 --> 00:13:34,000
their estimates. 

488
00:13:34,000 --> 00:13:36,000
So this is the range that they 

489
00:13:36,000 --> 00:13:37,000
show. 

490
00:13:37,000 --> 00:13:38,000
And if we assume the same 

491
00:13:38,000 --> 00:13:40,000
densities of animals living in 

492
00:13:40,000 --> 00:13:41,000
the unsafe areas, what this 

493
00:13:41,000 --> 00:13:43,000
leaves us with is about 7400 

494
00:13:43,000 --> 00:13:45,000
animals likely to be remaining 

495
00:13:45,000 --> 00:13:46,000
in the wild. 

496
00:13:46,000 --> 00:13:48,000
This contrasts with 20,000 to 

497
00:13:48,000 --> 00:13:49,000
30,000 that were imported into 

498
00:13:49,000 --> 00:13:51,000
the United States in the 1950s 

499
00:13:51,000 --> 00:13:54,000
and 1960s. 

500
00:13:54,000 --> 00:13:55,000
But since 1970, it's been 

501
00:13:55,000 --> 00:13:57,000
habitat destruction that has 

502
00:13:57,000 --> 00:13:59,000
been the major cause of the 

503
00:13:59,000 --> 00:14:01,000
decline of populations. 

504
00:14:01,000 --> 00:14:02,000
So research related to 

505
00:14:02,000 --> 00:14:03,000
conservation I think is 

506
00:14:03,000 --> 00:14:04,000
critical. 

507
00:14:04,000 --> 00:14:06,000
Reserves are not easy to create 

508
00:14:06,000 --> 00:14:07,000
and maintain in Colombia. 

509
00:14:07,000 --> 00:14:09,000
We can't predict when a group of 

510
00:14:09,000 --> 00:14:11,000
guerillas or narcotraficantes is 

511
00:14:11,000 --> 00:14:12,000
going to want to take over an 

512
00:14:12,000 --> 00:14:14,000
area that we're trying to 

513
00:14:14,000 --> 00:14:15,000
preserve. 

514
00:14:15,000 --> 00:14:16,000
Captive breeding and research I 

515
00:14:16,000 --> 00:14:18,000
think are an important 

516
00:14:18,000 --> 00:14:19,000
supplement to conservation in 

517
00:14:19,000 --> 00:14:21,000
field. 

518
00:14:21,000 --> 00:14:22,000
But in order to captive 

519
00:14:22,000 --> 00:14:23,000
breeding, we have to learn how 

520
00:14:23,000 --> 00:14:24,000
to do it properly. 

521
00:14:24,000 --> 00:14:25,000
We have to learn what are the 

522
00:14:25,000 --> 00:14:26,000
parameters that are really 

523
00:14:26,000 --> 00:14:27,000
critical for successful captive 

524
00:14:27,000 --> 00:14:28,000
breeding. 

525
00:14:28,000 --> 00:14:29,000
And I think it's really 

526
00:14:29,000 --> 00:14:29,000
important that we develop 

527
00:14:29,000 --> 00:14:31,000
noninvasive methods because what 

528
00:14:31,000 --> 00:14:31,000
we want to do is to use 

529
00:14:31,000 --> 00:14:33,000
methodologies that will help us 

530
00:14:33,000 --> 00:14:35,000
understand the animals and how 

531
00:14:35,000 --> 00:14:36,000
they can breed successfully but 

532
00:14:36,000 --> 00:14:38,000
we don't want to do anything 

533
00:14:38,000 --> 00:14:40,000
that's going to disrupt their 

534
00:14:40,000 --> 00:14:41,000
natural behavior or disrupt 

535
00:14:41,000 --> 00:14:43,000
their ability to reproduce. 

536
00:14:43,000 --> 00:14:45,000
The same time I think anytime we 

537
00:14:45,000 --> 00:14:47,000
work with an endangered species 

538
00:14:47,000 --> 00:14:49,000
there's a moral imperative to 

539
00:14:49,000 --> 00:14:51,000
learn as much about that species 

540
00:14:51,000 --> 00:14:53,000
as we possibly can before it 

541
00:14:53,000 --> 00:14:55,000
goes extinct. 

542
00:14:55,000 --> 00:14:57,000
So rather than letting an animal 

543
00:14:57,000 --> 00:14:58,000
die out and just say tough luck, 

544
00:14:58,000 --> 00:15:00,000
you just picked the wrong place 

545
00:15:00,000 --> 00:15:02,000
to live, I think it's really 

546
00:15:02,000 --> 00:15:04,000
important that we, as biologists 

547
00:15:04,000 --> 00:15:06,000
and psychologists and 

548
00:15:06,000 --> 00:15:07,000
anthropologists, spend our 

549
00:15:07,000 --> 00:15:09,000
energies trying to understand 

550
00:15:09,000 --> 00:15:11,000
what is it that we can learn 

551
00:15:11,000 --> 00:15:12,000
from that species that might 

552
00:15:12,000 --> 00:15:14,000
help us, might help us 

553
00:15:14,000 --> 00:15:15,000
understand other nonhuman 

554
00:15:15,000 --> 00:15:17,000
primates, might help us 

555
00:15:17,000 --> 00:15:18,000
understand how to conserve 

556
00:15:18,000 --> 00:15:20,000
primates. 

557
00:15:20,000 --> 00:15:21,000
So I think research plays in a 

558
00:15:21,000 --> 00:15:21,000
very important role. 

559
00:15:21,000 --> 00:15:22,000
Research has to be done right 

560
00:15:22,000 --> 00:15:24,000
and has to be done carefully. 

561
00:15:24,000 --> 00:15:26,000
So in order to start our captive 

562
00:15:26,000 --> 00:15:28,000
breeding program, we found we 

563
00:15:28,000 --> 00:15:29,000
had six major myths we had to 

564
00:15:29,000 --> 00:15:31,000
overcome. 

565
00:15:31,000 --> 00:15:32,000
And let me deal with each of 

566
00:15:32,000 --> 00:15:34,000
these myths in return. 

567
00:15:34,000 --> 00:15:36,000
When we first began in 1978, the 

568
00:15:36,000 --> 00:15:39,000
idea was that good research had 

569
00:15:39,000 --> 00:15:41,000
to be invasive, and I'll talk 

570
00:15:41,000 --> 00:15:42,000
about some of the ways that 

571
00:15:42,000 --> 00:15:44,000
we've dealt with coming with 

572
00:15:44,000 --> 00:15:46,000
noninvasive ways. 

573
00:15:46,000 --> 00:15:47,000
It was thought that a mother or 

574
00:15:47,000 --> 00:15:49,000
a mother and father were 

575
00:15:49,000 --> 00:15:50,000
sufficient to raise offspring. 

576
00:15:50,000 --> 00:15:52,000
They didn't know about 

577
00:15:52,000 --> 00:15:53,000
cooperative breeding, they 

578
00:15:53,000 --> 00:15:54,000
didn't know about the importance 

579
00:15:54,000 --> 00:15:56,000
of having, possible importance 

580
00:15:56,000 --> 00:15:58,000
of having helpers to rear 

581
00:15:58,000 --> 00:15:59,000
infants. 

582
00:15:59,000 --> 00:16:01,000
Most of the biologists who were 

583
00:16:01,000 --> 00:16:02,000
breeding cotton-top tamarins in 

584
00:16:02,000 --> 00:16:04,000
captivity in the 1970s believed 

585
00:16:04,000 --> 00:16:05,000
that parenting skills were 

586
00:16:05,000 --> 00:16:07,000
innate. 

587
00:16:07,000 --> 00:16:08,000
And, therefore, what they could 

588
00:16:08,000 --> 00:16:10,000
to was to take infants or take 

589
00:16:10,000 --> 00:16:12,000
adolescents away from their 

590
00:16:12,000 --> 00:16:13,000
family groups at an early age 

591
00:16:13,000 --> 00:16:15,000
and get them to breed, and I'll 

592
00:16:15,000 --> 00:16:16,000
show you what the consequences 

593
00:16:16,000 --> 00:16:18,000
of not letting animals stay at 

594
00:16:18,000 --> 00:16:20,000
home and live with their parents 

595
00:16:20,000 --> 00:16:22,000
for a period of time are. 

596
00:16:22,000 --> 00:16:25,000
They're significant. 

597
00:16:25,000 --> 00:16:26,000
Cozy cages were thought to be 

598
00:16:26,000 --> 00:16:27,000
sufficient. 

599
00:16:27,000 --> 00:16:29,000
And I'll say some more about 

600
00:16:29,000 --> 00:16:30,000
cage size and cage volume. 

601
00:16:30,000 --> 00:16:31,000
We had a big run in with our 

602
00:16:31,000 --> 00:16:33,000
veterinarians in the 1970s 

603
00:16:33,000 --> 00:16:35,000
because there's a belief by 

604
00:16:35,000 --> 00:16:37,000
veterinarians that all surfaces 

605
00:16:37,000 --> 00:16:38,000
have to be impermeable and 

606
00:16:38,000 --> 00:16:40,000
sterilizable, and yet there's 

607
00:16:40,000 --> 00:16:42,000
some good reasons, biologically, 

608
00:16:42,000 --> 00:16:43,000
why not all surfaces should be 

609
00:16:43,000 --> 00:16:46,000
that way for tamarins. 

610
00:16:46,000 --> 00:16:47,000
Sterilization is important, 

611
00:16:47,000 --> 00:16:49,000
cleanliness is important, but we 

612
00:16:49,000 --> 00:16:50,000
need to think carefully about 

613
00:16:50,000 --> 00:16:51,000
the biological needs of the 

614
00:16:51,000 --> 00:16:53,000
animals as well. 

615
00:16:53,000 --> 00:16:54,000
And finally, people ask a lot 

616
00:16:54,000 --> 00:16:56,000
about should animals be 

617
00:16:56,000 --> 00:16:57,000
reintroduced into the wild? 

618
00:16:57,000 --> 00:16:59,000
And there's a thought among many 

619
00:16:59,000 --> 00:17:01,000
biologists, many of my 

620
00:17:01,000 --> 00:17:03,000
colleagues, that predator fear 

621
00:17:03,000 --> 00:17:04,000
is something that is innate, 

622
00:17:04,000 --> 00:17:05,000
that animals don't have to learn 

623
00:17:05,000 --> 00:17:06,000
about predators. 

624
00:17:06,000 --> 00:17:08,000
And I want to try to argue that 

625
00:17:08,000 --> 00:17:09,000
these are all myths that have to 

626
00:17:09,000 --> 00:17:10,000
be overcome in order to rear and 

627
00:17:10,000 --> 00:17:12,000
think about reintroduce in a 

628
00:17:12,000 --> 00:17:14,000
serious way. 

629
00:17:14,000 --> 00:17:15,000
So, noninvasive methods can 

630
00:17:15,000 --> 00:17:17,000
work. 

631
00:17:17,000 --> 00:17:18,000
We developed ways to minimize 

632
00:17:18,000 --> 00:17:20,000
handling of animals by, among 

633
00:17:20,000 --> 00:17:21,000
other things, luring them down 

634
00:17:21,000 --> 00:17:23,000
to stand on a scale by giving 

635
00:17:23,000 --> 00:17:25,000
them a raisin or a treat, and 

636
00:17:25,000 --> 00:17:26,000
they would sit on the scale and 

637
00:17:26,000 --> 00:17:28,000
we could weigh them. 

638
00:17:28,000 --> 00:17:29,000
We could medicate them by hiding 

639
00:17:29,000 --> 00:17:31,000
the medication in a piece of 

640
00:17:31,000 --> 00:17:33,000
cookie or piece of banana and 

641
00:17:33,000 --> 00:17:34,000
feeding it to them through the 

642
00:17:34,000 --> 00:17:36,000
cage walls so we didn't have to 

643
00:17:36,000 --> 00:17:37,000
capture the animal every time we 

644
00:17:37,000 --> 00:17:38,000
wanted to give it an antibiotic 

645
00:17:38,000 --> 00:17:40,000
or give it something else. 

646
00:17:40,000 --> 00:17:42,000
We figured out ways to transfer 

647
00:17:42,000 --> 00:17:43,000
animals to new environments 

648
00:17:43,000 --> 00:17:45,000
without having to capture them 

649
00:17:45,000 --> 00:17:48,000
or ever handle them, through air 

650
00:17:48,000 --> 00:17:49,000
condition ducting and I'll show 

651
00:17:49,000 --> 00:17:51,000
you that in a minute. 

652
00:17:51,000 --> 00:17:53,000
Also monitored hormones by 

653
00:17:53,000 --> 00:17:54,000
collecting urine samples which 

654
00:17:54,000 --> 00:17:55,000
is a very easy way and a very 

655
00:17:55,000 --> 00:17:58,000
unorthodox method of looking at 

656
00:17:58,000 --> 00:18:02,000
urine samples, of looking at 

657
00:18:02,000 --> 00:18:05,000
hormones back when we started. 

658
00:18:05,000 --> 00:18:07,000
And we ended up testing the 

659
00:18:07,000 --> 00:18:09,000
cognitive skills of the animals 

660
00:18:09,000 --> 00:18:10,000
by bringing the apparatus to the 

661
00:18:10,000 --> 00:18:12,000
animal rather than taking the 

662
00:18:12,000 --> 00:18:14,000
animal away and putting it 

663
00:18:14,000 --> 00:18:15,000
somewhere where they would have 

664
00:18:15,000 --> 00:18:16,000
to work with the apparatus in a 

665
00:18:16,000 --> 00:18:19,000
strange environment. 

666
00:18:19,000 --> 00:18:20,000
So here's an example of using 

667
00:18:20,000 --> 00:18:22,000
air condition ducting to 

668
00:18:22,000 --> 00:18:23,000
transfer monkeys. 

669
00:18:23,000 --> 00:18:24,000
Here's a large cage here. 

670
00:18:24,000 --> 00:18:26,000
Here's a cage on wheels. 

671
00:18:26,000 --> 00:18:27,000
What we could do is to lure an 

672
00:18:27,000 --> 00:18:28,000
animal through the air condition 

673
00:18:28,000 --> 00:18:30,000
ducting into this cage on 

674
00:18:30,000 --> 00:18:31,000
wheels, and then if we wanted to 

675
00:18:31,000 --> 00:18:33,000
take an animal down and 

676
00:18:33,000 --> 00:18:34,000
introduce it to a new partner, 

677
00:18:34,000 --> 00:18:35,000
we could just move the wheeled 

678
00:18:35,000 --> 00:18:37,000
cage down, reconnecting the air 

679
00:18:37,000 --> 00:18:39,000
condition ducting and have 

680
00:18:39,000 --> 00:18:40,000
animals move into the cage 

681
00:18:40,000 --> 00:18:41,000
without ever having to touch the 

682
00:18:41,000 --> 00:18:43,000
animals. 

683
00:18:43,000 --> 00:18:45,000
We collected urine samples very 

684
00:18:45,000 --> 00:18:47,000
easily. 

685
00:18:47,000 --> 00:18:48,000
Toni Ziegler, my colleague for 

686
00:18:48,000 --> 00:18:51,000
the last 20-some years, I won't 

687
00:18:51,000 --> 00:18:52,000
say exactly how long, has been 

688
00:18:52,000 --> 00:18:54,000
very valuable in developing some 

689
00:18:54,000 --> 00:18:55,000
incredible ways to get hormonal 

690
00:18:55,000 --> 00:18:57,000
information out of urine 

691
00:18:57,000 --> 00:19:00,000
samples. 

692
00:19:00,000 --> 00:19:02,000
And we've realized early on that 

693
00:19:02,000 --> 00:19:04,000
monkeys, very much like us, the 

694
00:19:04,000 --> 00:19:06,000
first thing you do in the 

695
00:19:06,000 --> 00:19:07,000
morning when you get up is 

696
00:19:07,000 --> 00:19:09,000
probably go for the bathroom and 

697
00:19:09,000 --> 00:19:10,000
pee, and one of the first things 

698
00:19:10,000 --> 00:19:12,000
monkeys do when they wake up in 

699
00:19:12,000 --> 00:19:13,000
the morning is to pee as well. 

700
00:19:13,000 --> 00:19:15,000
And so what we had were we could 

701
00:19:15,000 --> 00:19:17,000
get people to come in, wake up 

702
00:19:17,000 --> 00:19:19,000
the monkeys early in the 

703
00:19:19,000 --> 00:19:21,000
morning, walk around with a 

704
00:19:21,000 --> 00:19:23,000
bucket under them, and collect a 

705
00:19:23,000 --> 00:19:25,000
urine sample when it came out, 

706
00:19:25,000 --> 00:19:26,000
and it gave us a way in which we 

707
00:19:26,000 --> 00:19:28,000
could collect data from animals, 

708
00:19:28,000 --> 00:19:29,000
monitor the reproductive state, 

709
00:19:29,000 --> 00:19:31,000
monitor a variety of other 

710
00:19:31,000 --> 00:19:32,000
things about them, which I'll 

711
00:19:32,000 --> 00:19:33,000
show you in a minute, without 

712
00:19:33,000 --> 00:19:35,000
ever having to capture and 

713
00:19:35,000 --> 00:19:36,000
handle them. 

714
00:19:36,000 --> 00:19:37,000
And, as I said, at the time this 

715
00:19:37,000 --> 00:19:38,000
was a very unusual way to go. 

716
00:19:38,000 --> 00:19:40,000
David Abbott and some of his 

717
00:19:40,000 --> 00:19:41,000
colleagues from the Institute of 

718
00:19:41,000 --> 00:19:43,000
Zoology in London have come up 

719
00:19:43,000 --> 00:19:45,000
with some ways of using urinary 

720
00:19:45,000 --> 00:19:47,000
assays, and we've adopted on 

721
00:19:47,000 --> 00:19:49,000
that and expanded on those. 

722
00:19:49,000 --> 00:19:51,000
So some of the hormones that 

723
00:19:51,000 --> 00:19:52,000
we're able to measure, have 

724
00:19:52,000 --> 00:19:54,000
measured in urine samples from 

725
00:19:54,000 --> 00:19:55,000
cotton-top tamarins are 

726
00:19:55,000 --> 00:19:57,000
estradiol and estrone, female 

727
00:19:57,000 --> 00:19:59,000
hormones having to do with 

728
00:19:59,000 --> 00:20:00,000
reproductive cycles; 

729
00:20:00,000 --> 00:20:02,000
testosterone, which is involved 

730
00:20:02,000 --> 00:20:03,000
oftentimes in aggression but 

731
00:20:03,000 --> 00:20:05,000
also in parenting behavior; 

732
00:20:05,000 --> 00:20:06,000
dihydrotestosterone, involved in 

733
00:20:06,000 --> 00:20:08,000
sexual behavior; cortisol and 

734
00:20:08,000 --> 00:20:10,000
corticosterone, which are 

735
00:20:10,000 --> 00:20:11,000
stress-related hormones; 

736
00:20:11,000 --> 00:20:13,000
prolactin and oxytocin, which 

737
00:20:13,000 --> 00:20:15,000
are really interesting hormones 

738
00:20:15,000 --> 00:20:17,000
that are involved in nursing and 

739
00:20:17,000 --> 00:20:18,000
parenting and also in pair 

740
00:20:18,000 --> 00:20:20,000
bonding; and luteinizing 

741
00:20:20,000 --> 00:20:21,000
hormone, which is an important 

742
00:20:21,000 --> 00:20:23,000
key for ovulation. 

743
00:20:23,000 --> 00:20:24,000
And all these were things that 

744
00:20:24,000 --> 00:20:25,000
when we first began the gold 

745
00:20:25,000 --> 00:20:26,000
standard was to use blood 

746
00:20:26,000 --> 00:20:27,000
samples. 

747
00:20:27,000 --> 00:20:29,000
And the only way the 

748
00:20:29,000 --> 00:20:30,000
endocrinologists would accept 

749
00:20:30,000 --> 00:20:32,000
the work was if you had captured 

750
00:20:32,000 --> 00:20:35,000
an animal, taken a blood sample, 

751
00:20:35,000 --> 00:20:37,000
and measured the hormones from 

752
00:20:37,000 --> 00:20:38,000
that. 

753
00:20:38,000 --> 00:20:39,000
So it took a long time for 

754
00:20:39,000 --> 00:20:41,000
various of us who were 

755
00:20:41,000 --> 00:20:42,000
interested in developing 

756
00:20:42,000 --> 00:20:43,000
noninvasive ways to argue and 

757
00:20:43,000 --> 00:20:45,000
make is clear there's some clear 

758
00:20:45,000 --> 00:20:46,000
advantages, both in terms of 

759
00:20:46,000 --> 00:20:48,000
minimizing stress to animals, 

760
00:20:48,000 --> 00:20:49,000
but also some clear advantages 

761
00:20:49,000 --> 00:20:51,000
in terms of the quality of the 

762
00:20:51,000 --> 00:20:52,000
hormonal data that you can get, 

763
00:20:52,000 --> 00:20:54,000
especially looking at long-term 

764
00:20:54,000 --> 00:20:56,000
hormonal effects that we can get 

765
00:20:56,000 --> 00:20:57,000
by using urine instead of some 

766
00:20:57,000 --> 00:21:00,000
other method. 

767
00:21:00,000 --> 00:21:02,000
Toni Ziegler has gone on to 

768
00:21:02,000 --> 00:21:03,000
expand this work to help other 

769
00:21:03,000 --> 00:21:05,000
people around the world who were 

770
00:21:05,000 --> 00:21:07,000
interested in looking at 

771
00:21:07,000 --> 00:21:08,000
hormones. 

772
00:21:08,000 --> 00:21:10,000
This is just a list of the 

773
00:21:10,000 --> 00:21:11,000
species where Toni Ziegler has 

774
00:21:11,000 --> 00:21:13,000
used her expertise to help 

775
00:21:13,000 --> 00:21:14,000
develop noninvasive hormonal 

776
00:21:14,000 --> 00:21:15,000
work. 

777
00:21:15,000 --> 00:21:17,000
The species that are sort of 

778
00:21:17,000 --> 00:21:18,000
bolded are endangered species. 

779
00:21:18,000 --> 00:21:20,000
So you can see that she's doing 

780
00:21:20,000 --> 00:21:21,000
a lot of work to apply these 

781
00:21:21,000 --> 00:21:23,000
assays to help people understand 

782
00:21:23,000 --> 00:21:24,000
the reproductive biology and the 

783
00:21:24,000 --> 00:21:26,000
stress physiology of animals 

784
00:21:26,000 --> 00:21:27,000
living in the wild, and it's a 

785
00:21:27,000 --> 00:21:29,000
very important role for 

786
00:21:29,000 --> 00:21:32,000
understanding wild animals. 

787
00:21:32,000 --> 00:21:33,000
And here are some of the 

788
00:21:33,000 --> 00:21:34,000
hormones that Toni's been able 

789
00:21:34,000 --> 00:21:36,000
to help people measure in field 

790
00:21:36,000 --> 00:21:38,000
studies: cortisol, testosterone, 

791
00:21:38,000 --> 00:21:39,000
dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, 

792
00:21:39,000 --> 00:21:42,000
and oxytocin. 

793
00:21:42,000 --> 00:21:44,000
The myth number two was that 

794
00:21:44,000 --> 00:21:48,000
parents are able to take care of 

795
00:21:48,000 --> 00:21:50,000
their young by themselves. 

796
00:21:50,000 --> 00:21:52,000
And let me focus on the green 

797
00:21:52,000 --> 00:21:54,000
data first, the green bars. 

798
00:21:54,000 --> 00:21:55,000
Show data we've gathered in the 

799
00:21:55,000 --> 00:21:57,000
field, keeping track of those 

800
00:21:57,000 --> 00:21:59,000
infant survival like in the 

801
00:21:59,000 --> 00:22:01,000
field as a function of how many 

802
00:22:01,000 --> 00:22:03,000
helpers were there in a family 

803
00:22:03,000 --> 00:22:04,000
group. 

804
00:22:04,000 --> 00:22:06,000
So one helper means that there's 

805
00:22:06,000 --> 00:22:07,000
a mother and a father, the 

806
00:22:07,000 --> 00:22:09,000
father is a helper. 

807
00:22:09,000 --> 00:22:10,000
And with increasing helpers you 

808
00:22:10,000 --> 00:22:12,000
can see that we found that there 

809
00:22:12,000 --> 00:22:14,000
was steady rise in infant 

810
00:22:14,000 --> 00:22:16,000
survival rate until we got to 

811
00:22:16,000 --> 00:22:18,000
group sizes of five, a mother 

812
00:22:18,000 --> 00:22:20,000
plus four helpers. 

813
00:22:20,000 --> 00:22:22,000
And only then did we get 100% 

814
00:22:22,000 --> 00:22:24,000
survival rate in our field 

815
00:22:24,000 --> 00:22:25,000
studies. 

816
00:22:25,000 --> 00:22:27,000
We then came back and I looked 

817
00:22:27,000 --> 00:22:28,000
at our captive data asking the 

818
00:22:28,000 --> 00:22:30,000
same question, and much to my 

819
00:22:30,000 --> 00:22:31,000
surprise we found exactly the 

820
00:22:31,000 --> 00:22:33,000
same thing happening in 

821
00:22:33,000 --> 00:22:34,000
captivity. 

822
00:22:34,000 --> 00:22:36,000
Even though animals were well 

823
00:22:36,000 --> 00:22:38,000
fed, they had access to food, 

824
00:22:38,000 --> 00:22:39,000
they didn't have to run away 

825
00:22:39,000 --> 00:22:40,000
from predators, and what we find 

826
00:22:40,000 --> 00:22:42,000
is that in our captive 

827
00:22:42,000 --> 00:22:44,000
populations animals, infant 

828
00:22:44,000 --> 00:22:45,000
survival reaches 100% only when 

829
00:22:45,000 --> 00:22:48,000
we had family sizes of five or 

830
00:22:48,000 --> 00:22:50,000
larger to be able to help take 

831
00:22:50,000 --> 00:22:51,000
care of kids. 

832
00:22:51,000 --> 00:22:53,000
So this creates some interesting 

833
00:22:53,000 --> 00:22:55,000
questions about why are these 

834
00:22:55,000 --> 00:22:57,000
helpers important? 

835
00:22:57,000 --> 00:22:58,000
Why even in captivity are they 

836
00:22:58,000 --> 00:22:59,000
so important? 

837
00:22:59,000 --> 00:23:01,000
Secondly, it says we can't 

838
00:23:01,000 --> 00:23:02,000
really house the animals in pair 

839
00:23:02,000 --> 00:23:04,000
cages. 

840
00:23:04,000 --> 00:23:05,000
If we want them to breed 

841
00:23:05,000 --> 00:23:06,000
successfully, we have to have 

842
00:23:06,000 --> 00:23:08,000
larger cages big enough to hold 

843
00:23:08,000 --> 00:23:09,000
whole family groups together. 

844
00:23:09,000 --> 00:23:11,000
And there's one other important 

845
00:23:11,000 --> 00:23:12,000
question I'll get to in just a 

846
00:23:12,000 --> 00:23:13,000
second. 

847
00:23:13,000 --> 00:23:15,000
In is data from one of my 

848
00:23:15,000 --> 00:23:16,000
colleagues, Sofia Zahed, which 

849
00:23:16,000 --> 00:23:18,000
found that parents' effort is 

850
00:23:18,000 --> 00:23:20,000
reduced by increasing number of 

851
00:23:20,000 --> 00:23:21,000
helpers. 

852
00:23:21,000 --> 00:23:23,000
So fathers show the greatest 

853
00:23:23,000 --> 00:23:25,000
influence of having extra 

854
00:23:25,000 --> 00:23:26,000
helpers around, they carry less 

855
00:23:26,000 --> 00:23:27,000
and less. 

856
00:23:27,000 --> 00:23:29,000
But mothers also show an effect 

857
00:23:29,000 --> 00:23:30,000
where by the time we get to 

858
00:23:30,000 --> 00:23:31,000
family sizes of five mothers are 

859
00:23:31,000 --> 00:23:33,000
doing much less caring then they 

860
00:23:33,000 --> 00:23:34,000
do before. 

861
00:23:34,000 --> 00:23:36,000
Remember, mothers are the ones 

862
00:23:36,000 --> 00:23:37,000
who have the greatest energetic 

863
00:23:37,000 --> 00:23:39,000
load, they've just giving birth 

864
00:23:39,000 --> 00:23:40,000
to two really heavy twins, 

865
00:23:40,000 --> 00:23:42,000
they're nursing those twins, and 

866
00:23:42,000 --> 00:23:43,000
they're pregnant again. 

867
00:23:43,000 --> 00:23:44,000
And so reducing the load on 

868
00:23:44,000 --> 00:23:46,000
mothers may have a really 

869
00:23:46,000 --> 00:23:47,000
important role to play in infant 

870
00:23:47,000 --> 00:23:49,000
survival too. 

871
00:23:49,000 --> 00:23:50,000
And males carry more than 

872
00:23:50,000 --> 00:23:52,000
females. 

873
00:23:52,000 --> 00:23:54,000
This is looking at sub-adult and 

874
00:23:54,000 --> 00:23:56,000
adult males and females, older 

875
00:23:56,000 --> 00:23:58,000
brothers and sisters. 

876
00:23:58,000 --> 00:24:00,000
And you can see that brothers do 

877
00:24:00,000 --> 00:24:01,000
about twice as much infant care 

878
00:24:01,000 --> 00:24:03,000
taking, especially as they get 

879
00:24:03,000 --> 00:24:05,000
older, as sisters do. 

880
00:24:05,000 --> 00:24:06,000
So infant care taking is a male 

881
00:24:06,000 --> 00:24:08,000
affair, not so much a female 

882
00:24:08,000 --> 00:24:10,000
affair. 

883
00:24:10,000 --> 00:24:12,000
But parent skills are not 

884
00:24:12,000 --> 00:24:14,000
innate, as people thought when 

885
00:24:14,000 --> 00:24:16,000
they were working with these 

886
00:24:16,000 --> 00:24:17,000
animals when we first started. 

887
00:24:17,000 --> 00:24:20,000
These are data from a woman 

888
00:24:20,000 --> 00:24:22,000
named -- who had done a lot of 

889
00:24:22,000 --> 00:24:24,000
work with a another related 

890
00:24:24,000 --> 00:24:25,000
species of marmoset. 

891
00:24:25,000 --> 00:24:27,000
This is showing survival rate as 

892
00:24:27,000 --> 00:24:29,000
a function of did a monkey grow 

893
00:24:29,000 --> 00:24:31,000
up in an environment where she 

894
00:24:31,000 --> 00:24:33,000
or he had a chance to care for 

895
00:24:33,000 --> 00:24:35,000
somebody else's infants. 

896
00:24:35,000 --> 00:24:37,000
So when both animals are 

897
00:24:37,000 --> 00:24:38,000
experienced and both parents 

898
00:24:38,000 --> 00:24:40,000
have grown up in a family where 

899
00:24:40,000 --> 00:24:41,000
they could take care of somebody 

900
00:24:41,000 --> 00:24:43,000
else's infants, we have 100% 

901
00:24:43,000 --> 00:24:44,000
survival. 

902
00:24:44,000 --> 00:24:46,000
If both animals in the pair are 

903
00:24:46,000 --> 00:24:48,000
naive, that is they've grown up 

904
00:24:48,000 --> 00:24:50,000
in a family where they have not 

905
00:24:50,000 --> 00:24:51,000
had a chance to take care of 

906
00:24:51,000 --> 00:24:53,000
infants, survival rate is below 

907
00:24:53,000 --> 00:24:54,000
20%. 

908
00:24:54,000 --> 00:24:56,000
And we can see that mother's 

909
00:24:56,000 --> 00:24:57,000
naive and father's naive give us 

910
00:24:57,000 --> 00:24:59,000
intermediate values where one 

911
00:24:59,000 --> 00:25:01,000
partner is sophisticated and 

912
00:25:01,000 --> 00:25:03,000
experienced. 

913
00:25:03,000 --> 00:25:04,000
What this show, I think, is that 

914
00:25:04,000 --> 00:25:06,000
parental care experience is 

915
00:25:06,000 --> 00:25:07,000
really important. 

916
00:25:07,000 --> 00:25:09,000
But this is a different species 

917
00:25:09,000 --> 00:25:11,000
than the cotton-top tamarin. 

918
00:25:11,000 --> 00:25:12,000
So let's look at cotton-top 

919
00:25:12,000 --> 00:25:13,000
tamarin data. 

920
00:25:13,000 --> 00:25:15,000
This is not from our lab because 

921
00:25:15,000 --> 00:25:16,000
we never raised any animals that 

922
00:25:16,000 --> 00:25:18,000
did not have experience in their 

923
00:25:18,000 --> 00:25:20,000
family groups. 

924
00:25:20,000 --> 00:25:21,000
But if we look at here, we find 

925
00:25:21,000 --> 00:25:22,000
two different experiences going 

926
00:25:22,000 --> 00:25:24,000
on. 

927
00:25:24,000 --> 00:25:25,000
First of all, let me call 

928
00:25:25,000 --> 00:25:26,000
attention to the bar graphs for 

929
00:25:26,000 --> 00:25:27,000
the inexperienced animals. 

930
00:25:27,000 --> 00:25:29,000
They're in purple, I think. 

931
00:25:29,000 --> 00:25:31,000
And you can't see them because 

932
00:25:31,000 --> 00:25:32,000
in this particular study with 

933
00:25:32,000 --> 00:25:34,000
cotton-top tamarins, there was 

934
00:25:34,000 --> 00:25:36,000
not a single surviving infant to 

935
00:25:36,000 --> 00:25:38,000
parents who were rearing infants 

936
00:25:38,000 --> 00:25:40,000
without having had experience in 

937
00:25:40,000 --> 00:25:41,000
their own family groups. 

938
00:25:41,000 --> 00:25:43,000
So the only animals that were 

939
00:25:43,000 --> 00:25:45,000
successful were animals that had 

940
00:25:45,000 --> 00:25:46,000
grown up in a family group where 

941
00:25:46,000 --> 00:25:48,000
they could care for somebody 

942
00:25:48,000 --> 00:25:49,000
else's kids, and even when they 

943
00:25:49,000 --> 00:25:51,000
did it the first time they 

944
00:25:51,000 --> 00:25:53,000
weren't nearly as good and 

945
00:25:53,000 --> 00:25:54,000
successful at caring for infants 

946
00:25:54,000 --> 00:25:56,000
as they were when they bred 

947
00:25:56,000 --> 00:25:57,000
subsequently. 

948
00:25:57,000 --> 00:25:59,000
So we have two types of learning 

949
00:25:59,000 --> 00:26:00,000
effects. 

950
00:26:00,000 --> 00:26:01,000
Animals have to have experience 

951
00:26:01,000 --> 00:26:03,000
in their family groups to learn 

952
00:26:03,000 --> 00:26:04,000
how to care for infants 

953
00:26:04,000 --> 00:26:06,000
successfully, and secondly, even 

954
00:26:06,000 --> 00:26:08,000
first time parents have trouble 

955
00:26:08,000 --> 00:26:09,000
keeping infants alive and they 

956
00:26:09,000 --> 00:26:12,000
have to get some experience. 

957
00:26:12,000 --> 00:26:13,000
So learning plays a really 

958
00:26:13,000 --> 00:26:15,000
important role in parenting. 

959
00:26:15,000 --> 00:26:17,000
And I oftentimes question 

960
00:26:17,000 --> 00:26:20,000
freshman in my classes, why do 

961
00:26:20,000 --> 00:26:23,000
we have to take drivers training 

962
00:26:23,000 --> 00:26:25,000
classes and a drivers test and 

963
00:26:25,000 --> 00:26:26,000
we don't require people to take 

964
00:26:26,000 --> 00:26:28,000
a parent test and pass a 

965
00:26:28,000 --> 00:26:29,000
parenting test in order to 

966
00:26:29,000 --> 00:26:30,000
become parents? 

967
00:26:30,000 --> 00:26:31,000
They usually get offended by 

968
00:26:31,000 --> 00:26:33,000
that question, but I think it's 

969
00:26:33,000 --> 00:26:34,000
something we need to think about 

970
00:26:34,000 --> 00:26:35,000
for ourselves as well. 

971
00:26:35,000 --> 00:26:38,000
Cozy cages are not going to be 

972
00:26:38,000 --> 00:26:39,000
large enough for family groups. 

973
00:26:39,000 --> 00:26:42,000
The US Department of Agriculture 

974
00:26:42,000 --> 00:26:43,000
provides minimum standards for 

975
00:26:43,000 --> 00:26:45,000
cage sizes. 

976
00:26:45,000 --> 00:26:46,000
And I'm putting this in volume 

977
00:26:46,000 --> 00:26:47,000
here because volume is what 

978
00:26:47,000 --> 00:26:48,000
matters. 

979
00:26:48,000 --> 00:26:50,000
These are arboreal animals, as I 

980
00:26:50,000 --> 00:26:51,000
said earlier. 

981
00:26:51,000 --> 00:26:52,000
They like heights. 

982
00:26:52,000 --> 00:26:54,000
So the USDA minimum cage size 

983
00:26:54,000 --> 00:26:55,000
volume is here. 

984
00:26:55,000 --> 00:26:58,000
Our pair cages were this size, 

985
00:26:58,000 --> 00:26:59,000
and this is the volume of our 

986
00:26:59,000 --> 00:27:01,000
family cages that would house 

987
00:27:01,000 --> 00:27:03,000
families with multiple kids. 

988
00:27:03,000 --> 00:27:08,000
I was trying to translate this 

989
00:27:08,000 --> 00:27:10,000
to human terms, and my wife, 

990
00:27:10,000 --> 00:27:12,000
Ann, suggested I should think 

991
00:27:12,000 --> 00:27:13,000
about this and translate it to 

992
00:27:13,000 --> 00:27:15,000
floor space. 

993
00:27:15,000 --> 00:27:18,000
So a monkey weighs about 100th 

994
00:27:18,000 --> 00:27:20,000
of what an average human weighs. 

995
00:27:20,000 --> 00:27:22,000
So if we think an average human 

996
00:27:22,000 --> 00:27:24,000
weighing about 150 pounds and a 

997
00:27:24,000 --> 00:27:26,000
monkey weighing a pound and a 

998
00:27:26,000 --> 00:27:27,000
half, if we calculate the floor 

999
00:27:27,000 --> 00:27:29,000
space, the USDA size minimum 

1000
00:27:29,000 --> 00:27:31,000
cages would give you about 270 

1001
00:27:31,000 --> 00:27:33,000
square feet, about the size of a 

1002
00:27:33,000 --> 00:27:35,000
good sized dorm room. 

1003
00:27:35,000 --> 00:27:39,000
For a pair living alone without 

1004
00:27:39,000 --> 00:27:41,000
reproducing, they had 1900 

1005
00:27:41,000 --> 00:27:43,000
square feet, which is a 

1006
00:27:43,000 --> 00:27:45,000
moderately sized, it's just a 

1007
00:27:45,000 --> 00:27:47,000
nice sized house to have. 

1008
00:27:47,000 --> 00:27:49,000
And the family groups with four 

1009
00:27:49,000 --> 00:27:50,000
to six kids would have close to 

1010
00:27:50,000 --> 00:27:52,000
the equivalent of 6,000 square 

1011
00:27:52,000 --> 00:27:53,000
feet to live in. 

1012
00:27:53,000 --> 00:27:56,000
But, as I said, volume is more 

1013
00:27:56,000 --> 00:27:57,000
important than mere floor space 

1014
00:27:57,000 --> 00:27:59,000
for these guys. 

1015
00:27:59,000 --> 00:28:01,000
So large cages seem to be really 

1016
00:28:01,000 --> 00:28:03,000
important for us, too. 

1017
00:28:03,000 --> 00:28:05,000
As I mentioned before, we had 

1018
00:28:05,000 --> 00:28:06,000
some arguments with 

1019
00:28:06,000 --> 00:28:08,000
veterinarians when we first 

1020
00:28:08,000 --> 00:28:09,000
began because we wanted to use 

1021
00:28:09,000 --> 00:28:10,000
wooden surfaces and ropes and 

1022
00:28:10,000 --> 00:28:12,000
things, as I'm showing here. 

1023
00:28:12,000 --> 00:28:15,000
Tamarins are clawed primates. 

1024
00:28:15,000 --> 00:28:17,000
They don't have fingernails, 

1025
00:28:17,000 --> 00:28:18,000
they have claws. 

1026
00:28:18,000 --> 00:28:19,000
And when they climb they have to 

1027
00:28:19,000 --> 00:28:21,000
get their claws into something. 

1028
00:28:21,000 --> 00:28:22,000
So if we had stainless steel 

1029
00:28:22,000 --> 00:28:24,000
surfaces or plastic surfaces, 

1030
00:28:24,000 --> 00:28:25,000
what are they going to get their 

1031
00:28:25,000 --> 00:28:26,000
claws into? 

1032
00:28:26,000 --> 00:28:27,000
So it felt very important for us 

1033
00:28:27,000 --> 00:28:29,000
and we managed to convince 

1034
00:28:29,000 --> 00:28:30,000
veterinarians, and ultimately 

1035
00:28:30,000 --> 00:28:32,000
now the USDA inspectors who come 

1036
00:28:32,000 --> 00:28:34,000
through are very happy to see a 

1037
00:28:34,000 --> 00:28:36,000
lot of soft surfaces, but soft 

1038
00:28:36,000 --> 00:28:38,000
surfaces like branches, ropes, 

1039
00:28:38,000 --> 00:28:39,000
and things like this are very 

1040
00:28:39,000 --> 00:28:41,000
valuable for keeping animals 

1041
00:28:41,000 --> 00:28:43,000
happy and giving them surfaces 

1042
00:28:43,000 --> 00:28:44,000
that they can climb on, they can 

1043
00:28:44,000 --> 00:28:45,000
jump from one surface to 

1044
00:28:45,000 --> 00:28:46,000
another. 

1045
00:28:46,000 --> 00:28:48,000
And yes we do still worry about 

1046
00:28:48,000 --> 00:28:49,000
sterilization, so we clear out 

1047
00:28:49,000 --> 00:28:51,000
these branches and ropes every 

1048
00:28:51,000 --> 00:28:53,000
three months or so, put in a 

1049
00:28:53,000 --> 00:28:55,000
whole new set of things so the 

1050
00:28:55,000 --> 00:28:57,000
animals have a chance to learn a 

1051
00:28:57,000 --> 00:28:58,000
whole new set of motor skills as 

1052
00:28:58,000 --> 00:29:00,000
they have new branches and 

1053
00:29:00,000 --> 00:29:02,000
things to do, to climb up. 

1054
00:29:02,000 --> 00:29:03,000
And finally, we've done a couple 

1055
00:29:03,000 --> 00:29:05,000
of studies to show that tamarins 

1056
00:29:05,000 --> 00:29:06,000
do not have any sort of innate 

1057
00:29:06,000 --> 00:29:08,000
fear of predators. 

1058
00:29:08,000 --> 00:29:10,000
We've put snakes in their cage, 

1059
00:29:10,000 --> 00:29:12,000
fed boa constrictors, and they 

1060
00:29:12,000 --> 00:29:14,000
showed mild arousal and 

1061
00:29:14,000 --> 00:29:16,000
curiosity to a boa constrictor 

1062
00:29:16,000 --> 00:29:18,000
but don't show any innate fear 

1063
00:29:18,000 --> 00:29:19,000
response. 

1064
00:29:19,000 --> 00:29:21,000
We tried to condition animals to 

1065
00:29:21,000 --> 00:29:22,000
become afraid of snakes because 

1066
00:29:22,000 --> 00:29:23,000
we thought if we're ever going 

1067
00:29:23,000 --> 00:29:25,000
to return animals to the wild, 

1068
00:29:25,000 --> 00:29:26,000
we need to make sure that 

1069
00:29:26,000 --> 00:29:27,000
they're not going to be caught 

1070
00:29:27,000 --> 00:29:29,000
by snakes, and there's a 

1071
00:29:29,000 --> 00:29:30,000
wonderful photograph in a book 

1072
00:29:30,000 --> 00:29:32,000
on another endangered species, 

1073
00:29:32,000 --> 00:29:33,000
the golden lion tamarin, that 

1074
00:29:33,000 --> 00:29:35,000
had a radio collared animal was 

1075
00:29:35,000 --> 00:29:38,000
that tracked and the trackers 

1076
00:29:38,000 --> 00:29:40,000
found the signal coming from the 

1077
00:29:40,000 --> 00:29:42,000
belly of a boa constrictor in 

1078
00:29:42,000 --> 00:29:45,000
Brazil. 

1079
00:29:45,000 --> 00:29:47,000
So, in fact, learning about 

1080
00:29:47,000 --> 00:29:49,000
snakes and learning about other 

1081
00:29:49,000 --> 00:29:50,000
predators is something really 

1082
00:29:50,000 --> 00:29:52,000
important for these animals. 

1083
00:29:52,000 --> 00:29:53,000
We also showed that captive born 

1084
00:29:53,000 --> 00:29:55,000
tamarins had no selected fear 

1085
00:29:55,000 --> 00:29:56,000
response to vocalizations from 

1086
00:29:56,000 --> 00:29:58,000
predators compared to 

1087
00:29:58,000 --> 00:29:59,000
non-predators. 

1088
00:29:59,000 --> 00:30:01,000
So what this has are important 

1089
00:30:01,000 --> 00:30:02,000
implications for reintroduction 

1090
00:30:02,000 --> 00:30:04,000
of animals and also suggests 

1091
00:30:04,000 --> 00:30:05,000
something very important. 

1092
00:30:05,000 --> 00:30:07,000
Overall, the theme I'm trying to 

1093
00:30:07,000 --> 00:30:09,000
get at is that learning skills, 

1094
00:30:09,000 --> 00:30:11,000
basic survival skills is 

1095
00:30:11,000 --> 00:30:12,000
something that's very important 

1096
00:30:12,000 --> 00:30:14,000
and a good captive environment 

1097
00:30:14,000 --> 00:30:15,000
should be one that gives animals 

1098
00:30:15,000 --> 00:30:17,000
the normal social background, 

1099
00:30:17,000 --> 00:30:18,000
the normal social environment so 

1100
00:30:18,000 --> 00:30:19,000
that they can acquire these 

1101
00:30:19,000 --> 00:30:20,000
skills that are important to 

1102
00:30:20,000 --> 00:30:21,000
survival. 

1103
00:30:21,000 --> 00:30:23,000
So we began with 11 monkeys in 

1104
00:30:23,000 --> 00:30:25,000
1978 as a donation from a friend 

1105
00:30:25,000 --> 00:30:27,000
of mine in California who was 

1106
00:30:27,000 --> 00:30:29,000
doing research with them and was 

1107
00:30:29,000 --> 00:30:31,000
no longer interested. 

1108
00:30:31,000 --> 00:30:34,000
We, since 1978, have 

1109
00:30:34,000 --> 00:30:37,000
successfully bred enough animals 

1110
00:30:37,000 --> 00:30:38,000
so that we've given nearly 300 

1111
00:30:38,000 --> 00:30:41,000
away to other places. 

1112
00:30:41,000 --> 00:30:44,000
To zoos, to other noninvasive 

1113
00:30:44,000 --> 00:30:46,000
research institutions, many 

1114
00:30:46,000 --> 00:30:48,000
undergraduate colleges are now 

1115
00:30:48,000 --> 00:30:49,000
training their students on how 

1116
00:30:49,000 --> 00:30:51,000
to work non invasively with 

1117
00:30:51,000 --> 00:30:53,000
tamarins, and some have gone to 

1118
00:30:53,000 --> 00:30:55,000
sanctuaries as well. 

1119
00:30:55,000 --> 00:30:57,000
Our oldest monkey lived until 

1120
00:30:57,000 --> 00:30:59,000
she was 27 years of age, older 

1121
00:30:59,000 --> 00:31:00,000
than many of the students who 

1122
00:31:00,000 --> 00:31:02,000
worked with her. 

1123
00:31:02,000 --> 00:31:03,000
So again, it's kind of 

1124
00:31:03,000 --> 00:31:05,000
remarkable because for an animal 

1125
00:31:05,000 --> 00:31:07,000
that's as small as one and a 

1126
00:31:07,000 --> 00:31:09,000
half pounds to live for as long 

1127
00:31:09,000 --> 00:31:10,000
as 27 years is a really 

1128
00:31:10,000 --> 00:31:12,000
remarkable life span for an 

1129
00:31:12,000 --> 00:31:14,000
animal with a high metabolic 

1130
00:31:14,000 --> 00:31:16,000
rate and small body size. 

1131
00:31:16,000 --> 00:31:19,000
So, just to summarize some 

1132
00:31:19,000 --> 00:31:21,000
points about the value of 

1133
00:31:21,000 --> 00:31:22,000
research, and I'll give you some 

1134
00:31:22,000 --> 00:31:23,000
research examples in just a 

1135
00:31:23,000 --> 00:31:24,000
couple minutes. 

1136
00:31:24,000 --> 00:31:26,000
We must learn to breed animals 

1137
00:31:26,000 --> 00:31:28,000
successfully and that requires 

1138
00:31:28,000 --> 00:31:29,000
some careful research on how to 

1139
00:31:29,000 --> 00:31:30,000
do that. 

1140
00:31:30,000 --> 00:31:32,000
Once tamarins are extinct we 

1141
00:31:32,000 --> 00:31:33,000
can't study them anymore, so I 

1142
00:31:33,000 --> 00:31:35,000
think we have a moral imperative 

1143
00:31:35,000 --> 00:31:36,000
to learn about them. 

1144
00:31:36,000 --> 00:31:38,000
If we can come up with some 

1145
00:31:38,000 --> 00:31:39,000
interesting research findings, I 

1146
00:31:39,000 --> 00:31:41,000
think we can also make tamarins 

1147
00:31:41,000 --> 00:31:43,000
more interesting to other people 

1148
00:31:43,000 --> 00:31:45,000
and maybe get others involved in 

1149
00:31:45,000 --> 00:31:46,000
conservation. 

1150
00:31:46,000 --> 00:31:48,000
And I want to make a really 

1151
00:31:48,000 --> 00:31:49,000
clear point here that I don't 

1152
00:31:49,000 --> 00:31:51,000
think nonhuman primates are 

1153
00:31:51,000 --> 00:31:52,000
little humans, little furry 

1154
00:31:52,000 --> 00:31:54,000
humans, I don't think they're 

1155
00:31:54,000 --> 00:31:55,000
good stand-ins for humans, so 

1156
00:31:55,000 --> 00:31:56,000
the reason for studying them and 

1157
00:31:56,000 --> 00:31:58,000
why they're interesting to 

1158
00:31:58,000 --> 00:31:59,000
humans is a more subtle reason 

1159
00:31:59,000 --> 00:32:00,000
than simply saying they're a 

1160
00:32:00,000 --> 00:32:01,000
good stand-ins for humans. 

1161
00:32:01,000 --> 00:32:03,000
And a good example for that is 

1162
00:32:03,000 --> 00:32:04,000
chimpanzees, which are our close 

1163
00:32:04,000 --> 00:32:05,000
relatives but they're highly 

1164
00:32:05,000 --> 00:32:07,000
aggressive toward one another. 

1165
00:32:07,000 --> 00:32:08,000
Males kill infants frequently. 

1166
00:32:08,000 --> 00:32:10,000
They mate promiscuously and we 

1167
00:32:10,000 --> 00:32:12,000
may dream of doing that but few 

1168
00:32:12,000 --> 00:32:14,000
of us actually get around to get 

1169
00:32:14,000 --> 00:32:16,000
that opportunity. 

1170
00:32:16,000 --> 00:32:18,000
And more interestingly, perhaps, 

1171
00:32:18,000 --> 00:32:20,000
for our own sanitation purposes, 

1172
00:32:20,000 --> 00:32:22,000
the chimpanzees think nothing 

1173
00:32:22,000 --> 00:32:23,000
about defecating in their beds 

1174
00:32:23,000 --> 00:32:24,000
at night. 

1175
00:32:24,000 --> 00:32:26,000
So is this the species we want 

1176
00:32:26,000 --> 00:32:27,000
to use as a model for 

1177
00:32:27,000 --> 00:32:29,000
understanding human behavior? 

1178
00:32:29,000 --> 00:32:31,000
For some reasons, some things, 

1179
00:32:31,000 --> 00:32:32,000
they might be very valuable for 

1180
00:32:32,000 --> 00:32:34,000
but there are some other ways in 

1181
00:32:34,000 --> 00:32:35,000
which chimpanzees aren't so 

1182
00:32:35,000 --> 00:32:37,000
useful. 

1183
00:32:37,000 --> 00:32:39,000
But the more subtle point is 

1184
00:32:39,000 --> 00:32:40,000
that variation across primate 

1185
00:32:40,000 --> 00:32:42,000
species can lead us to new ways 

1186
00:32:42,000 --> 00:32:44,000
of thinking about human behavior 

1187
00:32:44,000 --> 00:32:45,000
and new questions to ask and 

1188
00:32:45,000 --> 00:32:47,000
study about humans. 

1189
00:32:47,000 --> 00:32:48,000
And as an example, I want to 

1190
00:32:48,000 --> 00:32:50,000
just briefly touch on work my 

1191
00:32:50,000 --> 00:32:52,000
colleague Karen Strier has been 

1192
00:32:52,000 --> 00:32:53,000
doing for the last 30 years in 

1193
00:32:53,000 --> 00:32:56,000
Brazil with an endangered 

1194
00:32:56,000 --> 00:32:58,000
species, the muriqui monkey. 

1195
00:32:58,000 --> 00:32:59,000
And muriquis are really 

1196
00:32:59,000 --> 00:33:01,000
interesting because there's no 

1197
00:33:01,000 --> 00:33:02,000
obvious dominance hierarchy and 

1198
00:33:02,000 --> 00:33:04,000
no obvious aggression occurring 

1199
00:33:04,000 --> 00:33:05,000
between animals in the wild, and 

1200
00:33:05,000 --> 00:33:06,000
this raises some interesting 

1201
00:33:06,000 --> 00:33:07,000
questions. 

1202
00:33:07,000 --> 00:33:08,000
If we're concerned about our own 

1203
00:33:08,000 --> 00:33:09,000
aggressiveness and want to know 

1204
00:33:09,000 --> 00:33:10,000
something about how we might 

1205
00:33:10,000 --> 00:33:12,000
adapt our lives to being less 

1206
00:33:12,000 --> 00:33:14,000
aggressive, then having the 

1207
00:33:14,000 --> 00:33:16,000
knowledge that Karen is gaining 

1208
00:33:16,000 --> 00:33:18,000
from studying muriquis in the 

1209
00:33:18,000 --> 00:33:20,000
wild may have some potential 

1210
00:33:20,000 --> 00:33:22,000
value for us. 

1211
00:33:22,000 --> 00:33:23,000
That's a source of variation 

1212
00:33:23,000 --> 00:33:25,000
that we usually don't think 

1213
00:33:25,000 --> 00:33:27,000
about that can be a value to us. 

1214
00:33:27,000 --> 00:33:29,000
Tamarins are one of the few 

1215
00:33:29,000 --> 00:33:30,000
primates that live in families, 

1216
00:33:30,000 --> 00:33:32,000
and they can help us, perhaps, 

1217
00:33:32,000 --> 00:33:33,000
think in new ways about human 

1218
00:33:33,000 --> 00:33:34,000
families. 

1219
00:33:34,000 --> 00:33:36,000
So how do fathers and others 

1220
00:33:36,000 --> 00:33:37,000
become involved in parenting? 

1221
00:33:37,000 --> 00:33:38,000
Are the communication skills and 

1222
00:33:38,000 --> 00:33:40,000
social skills that result from 

1223
00:33:40,000 --> 00:33:41,000
family life make their cognition 

1224
00:33:41,000 --> 00:33:43,000
better? 

1225
00:33:43,000 --> 00:33:45,000
And are family species, living 

1226
00:33:45,000 --> 00:33:46,000
species in general, more helpful 

1227
00:33:46,000 --> 00:33:48,000
and cooperative than other 

1228
00:33:48,000 --> 00:33:49,000
species? 

1229
00:33:49,000 --> 00:33:50,000
So let me come back to the 

1230
00:33:50,000 --> 00:33:52,000
questions I raised at the very 

1231
00:33:52,000 --> 00:33:53,000
beginning, why are tamarins 

1232
00:33:53,000 --> 00:33:54,000
interesting? 

1233
00:33:54,000 --> 00:33:58,000
How do they maintain monogamy? 

1234
00:33:58,000 --> 00:34:00,000
What behavior is important and 

1235
00:34:00,000 --> 00:34:02,000
what hormones might be involved 

1236
00:34:02,000 --> 00:34:03,000
in maintaining a close 

1237
00:34:03,000 --> 00:34:05,000
relationship? 

1238
00:34:05,000 --> 00:34:06,000
I mentioned already that twins 

1239
00:34:06,000 --> 00:34:08,000
weigh a lot. 

1240
00:34:08,000 --> 00:34:10,000
Mothers have cost they incur 

1241
00:34:10,000 --> 00:34:12,000
from pregnancy and nursing. 

1242
00:34:12,000 --> 00:34:13,000
Fathers carry infants and we 

1243
00:34:13,000 --> 00:34:15,000
find even captivity with all the 

1244
00:34:15,000 --> 00:34:17,000
food they can possibly eat, 

1245
00:34:17,000 --> 00:34:18,000
fathers still lose up to 10% of 

1246
00:34:18,000 --> 00:34:20,000
their body weight within the 

1247
00:34:20,000 --> 00:34:22,000
first two months of when infants 

1248
00:34:22,000 --> 00:34:24,000
are born when there are no 

1249
00:34:24,000 --> 00:34:26,000
helpers. 

1250
00:34:26,000 --> 00:34:28,000
We males face a really 

1251
00:34:28,000 --> 00:34:30,000
interesting problem in that 

1252
00:34:30,000 --> 00:34:32,000
every woman in this room 

1253
00:34:32,000 --> 00:34:34,000
obviously knows whenever she's 

1254
00:34:34,000 --> 00:34:36,000
pregnant and knows that the 

1255
00:34:36,000 --> 00:34:38,000
babies she produces are her own, 

1256
00:34:38,000 --> 00:34:39,000
but none of us men can ever been 

1257
00:34:39,000 --> 00:34:41,000
100% certain, unless we do a 

1258
00:34:41,000 --> 00:34:42,000
paternity test, that the babies 

1259
00:34:42,000 --> 00:34:44,000
we're helping to take care of 

1260
00:34:44,000 --> 00:34:46,000
are our own. 

1261
00:34:46,000 --> 00:34:47,000
So a good relationship with a 

1262
00:34:47,000 --> 00:34:50,000
good solid commitment to one 

1263
00:34:50,000 --> 00:34:51,000
another is something that's very 

1264
00:34:51,000 --> 00:34:53,000
important, especially for male 

1265
00:34:53,000 --> 00:34:55,000
primates. 

1266
00:34:55,000 --> 00:34:57,000
Grooming and contact are one of 

1267
00:34:57,000 --> 00:34:58,000
the ways in which this can be 

1268
00:34:58,000 --> 00:35:00,000
maintained, and we know that 

1269
00:35:00,000 --> 00:35:02,000
grooming with increase brain 

1270
00:35:02,000 --> 00:35:03,000
opioids, can reduce heart rate, 

1271
00:35:03,000 --> 00:35:05,000
reinforces learned behavior, can 

1272
00:35:05,000 --> 00:35:07,000
increase two hormones that are 

1273
00:35:07,000 --> 00:35:09,000
important in reward systems, 

1274
00:35:09,000 --> 00:35:11,000
prolactin and oxytocin, and 

1275
00:35:11,000 --> 00:35:13,000
grooming can also reduce 

1276
00:35:13,000 --> 00:35:14,000
cortisol. 

1277
00:35:14,000 --> 00:35:15,000
There's also some recent 

1278
00:35:15,000 --> 00:35:17,000
evidence that suggests being the 

1279
00:35:17,000 --> 00:35:18,000
one who does the grooming, not 

1280
00:35:18,000 --> 00:35:20,000
just being groomed but doing the 

1281
00:35:20,000 --> 00:35:21,000
grooming also provides a lot of 

1282
00:35:21,000 --> 00:35:22,000
benefits. 

1283
00:35:22,000 --> 00:35:23,000
So the individual who engages in 

1284
00:35:23,000 --> 00:35:25,000
the grooming behavior benefits 

1285
00:35:25,000 --> 00:35:27,000
physiologically as well. 

1286
00:35:27,000 --> 00:35:29,000
We found, interestingly, a 

1287
00:35:29,000 --> 00:35:31,000
series of asymmetries in 

1288
00:35:31,000 --> 00:35:33,000
grooming behavior. 

1289
00:35:33,000 --> 00:35:34,000
And this graph shows the 

1290
00:35:34,000 --> 00:35:36,000
percentage of dyads in which in 

1291
00:35:36,000 --> 00:35:38,000
tamarins where male groomed 

1292
00:35:38,000 --> 00:35:40,000
their mate more than the 

1293
00:35:40,000 --> 00:35:41,000
reverse. 

1294
00:35:41,000 --> 00:35:43,000
We find in wild marmosets as 

1295
00:35:43,000 --> 00:35:44,000
well, males grooming their 

1296
00:35:44,000 --> 00:35:46,000
mates, in 100% of the dyads 

1297
00:35:46,000 --> 00:35:48,000
males groom their partners much 

1298
00:35:48,000 --> 00:35:50,000
more than the reverse. 

1299
00:35:50,000 --> 00:35:52,000
We also find in wild marmosets 

1300
00:35:52,000 --> 00:35:54,000
that parents groomed their 

1301
00:35:54,000 --> 00:35:55,000
helpers significantly more often 

1302
00:35:55,000 --> 00:35:57,000
than the reverse. 

1303
00:35:57,000 --> 00:35:59,000
From a male's perspective, maybe 

1304
00:35:59,000 --> 00:36:00,000
I should be anxious about my 

1305
00:36:00,000 --> 00:36:02,000
partner. 

1306
00:36:02,000 --> 00:36:03,000
If I'm not sure about my 

1307
00:36:03,000 --> 00:36:05,000
paternity, then I should be the 

1308
00:36:05,000 --> 00:36:06,000
one to invest some effort into 

1309
00:36:06,000 --> 00:36:08,000
helping my partner be 

1310
00:36:08,000 --> 00:36:09,000
comfortable, be happy with me, 

1311
00:36:09,000 --> 00:36:11,000
and so this asymmetry we're 

1312
00:36:11,000 --> 00:36:13,000
seeing may be really important. 

1313
00:36:13,000 --> 00:36:15,000
Tamarin and marmoset monkeys 

1314
00:36:15,000 --> 00:36:16,000
spend up to 20% of their day in 

1315
00:36:16,000 --> 00:36:18,000
the wild grooming each other. 

1316
00:36:18,000 --> 00:36:19,000
So grooming plays a really 

1317
00:36:19,000 --> 00:36:21,000
important role, I think, in 

1318
00:36:21,000 --> 00:36:23,000
helping them stay together. 

1319
00:36:23,000 --> 00:36:25,000
Animals also engage in frequent 

1320
00:36:25,000 --> 00:36:26,000
nonconceptive sex. 

1321
00:36:26,000 --> 00:36:28,000
And what I mean by nonconception 

1322
00:36:28,000 --> 00:36:30,000
is we look at the female's 

1323
00:36:30,000 --> 00:36:31,000
ovulation date here, we can see 

1324
00:36:31,000 --> 00:36:33,000
that we can go back two weeks 

1325
00:36:33,000 --> 00:36:36,000
before ovulation or forward two 

1326
00:36:36,000 --> 00:36:38,000
weeks after ovulation and you 

1327
00:36:38,000 --> 00:36:40,000
can find that mating behavior, 

1328
00:36:40,000 --> 00:36:41,000
copulation behavior, is 

1329
00:36:41,000 --> 00:36:43,000
completely, I hope you can see 

1330
00:36:43,000 --> 00:36:45,000
this, completely unrelated to 

1331
00:36:45,000 --> 00:36:46,000
when ovulation occurs. 

1332
00:36:46,000 --> 00:36:48,000
This is curious because in most 

1333
00:36:48,000 --> 00:36:50,000
animals and most mammals, 

1334
00:36:50,000 --> 00:36:51,000
copulation is really tied to 

1335
00:36:51,000 --> 00:36:53,000
when females ovulate. 

1336
00:36:53,000 --> 00:36:55,000
And females oftentimes signal 

1337
00:36:55,000 --> 00:36:56,000
when they're ovulating to one 

1338
00:36:56,000 --> 00:36:57,000
another. 

1339
00:36:57,000 --> 00:36:59,000
We know that tamarins also do 

1340
00:36:59,000 --> 00:37:00,000
signal to each other when 

1341
00:37:00,000 --> 00:37:02,000
they're ovulating, so males are 

1342
00:37:02,000 --> 00:37:03,000
sensitive to odor cues that 

1343
00:37:03,000 --> 00:37:05,000
females give off that change 

1344
00:37:05,000 --> 00:37:06,000
when females are ovulating. 

1345
00:37:06,000 --> 00:37:08,000
But nonetheless, even though 

1346
00:37:08,000 --> 00:37:10,000
males can identify when females 

1347
00:37:10,000 --> 00:37:11,000
are ovulating, they're still 

1348
00:37:11,000 --> 00:37:13,000
mating with each other 

1349
00:37:13,000 --> 00:37:14,000
throughout the entire cycle. 

1350
00:37:14,000 --> 00:37:16,000
There's one other species that's 

1351
00:37:16,000 --> 00:37:17,000
very reminiscent of this, which 

1352
00:37:17,000 --> 00:37:19,000
is our own, where we mate with 

1353
00:37:19,000 --> 00:37:20,000
each other throughout the cycle 

1354
00:37:20,000 --> 00:37:22,000
and where we oftentimes have sex 

1355
00:37:22,000 --> 00:37:24,000
outside, at times when ovulation 

1356
00:37:24,000 --> 00:37:26,000
is not important. 

1357
00:37:26,000 --> 00:37:27,000
This raises an interesting 

1358
00:37:27,000 --> 00:37:29,000
question, why is there so much 

1359
00:37:29,000 --> 00:37:31,000
sex and what value might it 

1360
00:37:31,000 --> 00:37:32,000
have? 

1361
00:37:32,000 --> 00:37:33,000
Why is it not linked to 

1362
00:37:33,000 --> 00:37:35,000
ovulation? 

1363
00:37:35,000 --> 00:37:36,000
Suggested to me that there might 

1364
00:37:36,000 --> 00:37:37,000
be some social functions of 

1365
00:37:37,000 --> 00:37:39,000
nonconceptive sex just as 

1366
00:37:39,000 --> 00:37:40,000
there's social functions to 

1367
00:37:40,000 --> 00:37:41,000
grooming. 

1368
00:37:41,000 --> 00:37:43,000
And to examine that we started 

1369
00:37:43,000 --> 00:37:44,000
looking at some hormones, and 

1370
00:37:44,000 --> 00:37:45,000
two hormones that seemed be of 

1371
00:37:45,000 --> 00:37:47,000
interest were prolactin and 

1372
00:37:47,000 --> 00:37:48,000
oxytocin, which we know are 

1373
00:37:48,000 --> 00:37:49,000
important in infant in lots of 

1374
00:37:49,000 --> 00:37:52,000
female mammals. 

1375
00:37:52,000 --> 00:37:54,000
And we know from research done 

1376
00:37:54,000 --> 00:37:56,000
by several people now that 

1377
00:37:56,000 --> 00:37:58,000
oxytocin is involved in pair 

1378
00:37:58,000 --> 00:37:59,000
bonding, especially in female 

1379
00:37:59,000 --> 00:38:01,000
rodents that are monogamous. 

1380
00:38:01,000 --> 00:38:03,000
We also know that in humans at 

1381
00:38:03,000 --> 00:38:05,000
orgasm we find increases in 

1382
00:38:05,000 --> 00:38:08,000
oxytocin and prolactin in both 

1383
00:38:08,000 --> 00:38:11,000
men and women at orgasm 

1384
00:38:11,000 --> 00:38:12,000
suggesting that these hormones 

1385
00:38:12,000 --> 00:38:14,000
might have something to do with 

1386
00:38:14,000 --> 00:38:16,000
the reward of engaging in sexual 

1387
00:38:16,000 --> 00:38:18,000
behavior. 

1388
00:38:18,000 --> 00:38:20,000
So we asked the question of our 

1389
00:38:20,000 --> 00:38:21,000
tamarins, does variation and 

1390
00:38:21,000 --> 00:38:23,000
affiliation with their mate have 

1391
00:38:23,000 --> 00:38:24,000
any affect on these two 

1392
00:38:24,000 --> 00:38:26,000
hormones, oxytocin or prolactin? 

1393
00:38:26,000 --> 00:38:29,000
And can we identify different 

1394
00:38:29,000 --> 00:38:31,000
variables that might explain 

1395
00:38:31,000 --> 00:38:32,000
variation in these hormones that 

1396
00:38:32,000 --> 00:38:34,000
might suggest different roles 

1397
00:38:34,000 --> 00:38:36,000
for females and males in terms 

1398
00:38:36,000 --> 00:38:37,000
of what it takes to maintain a 

1399
00:38:37,000 --> 00:38:39,000
good relationship? 

1400
00:38:39,000 --> 00:38:40,000
So this is a figure that simply 

1401
00:38:40,000 --> 00:38:43,000
shows that this is looking at 

1402
00:38:43,000 --> 00:38:44,000
female prolactin levels related 

1403
00:38:44,000 --> 00:38:46,000
to how much affiliation behavior 

1404
00:38:46,000 --> 00:38:47,000
they engage in with their 

1405
00:38:47,000 --> 00:38:49,000
partner. 

1406
00:38:49,000 --> 00:38:50,000
And you can see there's a very 

1407
00:38:50,000 --> 00:38:51,000
clear and positive relationship. 

1408
00:38:51,000 --> 00:38:53,000
The more affiliation someone 

1409
00:38:53,000 --> 00:38:54,000
has, the higher her prolactin 

1410
00:38:54,000 --> 00:38:55,000
levels. 

1411
00:38:55,000 --> 00:38:57,000
This works for males and it 

1412
00:38:57,000 --> 00:38:58,000
works for the pairs as well. 

1413
00:38:58,000 --> 00:39:00,000
If we look at the hormone 

1414
00:39:00,000 --> 00:39:01,000
oxytocin, we also find a similar 

1415
00:39:01,000 --> 00:39:03,000
relationship that is as 

1416
00:39:03,000 --> 00:39:05,000
affiliative behavior increases 

1417
00:39:05,000 --> 00:39:07,000
within a pair, their joint 

1418
00:39:07,000 --> 00:39:08,000
oxytocin levels show an increase 

1419
00:39:08,000 --> 00:39:11,000
as well. 

1420
00:39:11,000 --> 00:39:13,000
And even though oxytocin has 

1421
00:39:13,000 --> 00:39:15,000
been looked at primarily as a 

1422
00:39:15,000 --> 00:39:17,000
female hormone, looked at in 

1423
00:39:17,000 --> 00:39:18,000
pair bonding in females, we 

1424
00:39:18,000 --> 00:39:21,000
found in tamarins that male and 

1425
00:39:21,000 --> 00:39:24,000
female levels here, male levels 

1426
00:39:24,000 --> 00:39:25,000
here, were very closely related 

1427
00:39:25,000 --> 00:39:27,000
to each other so that if we knew 

1428
00:39:27,000 --> 00:39:29,000
what the level was in a male, we 

1429
00:39:29,000 --> 00:39:31,000
could predict the level in a 

1430
00:39:31,000 --> 00:39:33,000
female. 

1431
00:39:33,000 --> 00:39:35,000
So overall we found within the 

1432
00:39:35,000 --> 00:39:37,000
species a 10-fold variation in 

1433
00:39:37,000 --> 00:39:39,000
the amount of affiliation, a 

1434
00:39:39,000 --> 00:39:41,000
10-fold variation in how much 

1435
00:39:41,000 --> 00:39:43,000
oxytocin levels they 

1436
00:39:43,000 --> 00:39:45,000
demonstrated, but no difference 

1437
00:39:45,000 --> 00:39:46,000
between the overall levels of 

1438
00:39:46,000 --> 00:39:48,000
males and females. 

1439
00:39:48,000 --> 00:39:50,000
However, we did find that what 

1440
00:39:50,000 --> 00:39:53,000
explained the variation oxytocin 

1441
00:39:53,000 --> 00:39:55,000
differed for the two sexes, 

1442
00:39:55,000 --> 00:39:57,000
maybe in way that some of you 

1443
00:39:57,000 --> 00:39:59,000
would find very predictable 

1444
00:39:59,000 --> 00:40:01,000
which was that variation in male 

1445
00:40:01,000 --> 00:40:02,000
oxytocin was explained by how 

1446
00:40:02,000 --> 00:40:04,000
much sex they had. 

1447
00:40:04,000 --> 00:40:06,000
Variation in female oxytocin was 

1448
00:40:06,000 --> 00:40:07,000
explained by how much cuddling 

1449
00:40:07,000 --> 00:40:08,000
and grooming they experienced. 

1450
00:40:08,000 --> 00:40:09,000
I got really excited about this 

1451
00:40:09,000 --> 00:40:11,000
result when I found it and went 

1452
00:40:11,000 --> 00:40:12,000
home and mentioned it to Ann and 

1453
00:40:12,000 --> 00:40:14,000
she just said, well, duh. 

1454
00:40:14,000 --> 00:40:15,000
[LAUGHTER] 

1455
00:40:15,000 --> 00:40:18,000
But I think it's interesting 

1456
00:40:18,000 --> 00:40:19,000
because we're told what's 

1457
00:40:19,000 --> 00:40:21,000
appropriate behavior for us 

1458
00:40:21,000 --> 00:40:22,000
to engage in. 

1459
00:40:22,000 --> 00:40:23,000
We have a culture, we have 

1460
00:40:23,000 --> 00:40:25,000
religious rules that tell us 

1461
00:40:25,000 --> 00:40:26,000
what to do. 

1462
00:40:26,000 --> 00:40:27,000
Here we have some animals that 

1463
00:40:27,000 --> 00:40:29,000
are not subjected to the 

1464
00:40:29,000 --> 00:40:30,000
cultural norms that we have and 

1465
00:40:30,000 --> 00:40:32,000
not subjected to religious rules 

1466
00:40:32,000 --> 00:40:34,000
that tell them how they should 

1467
00:40:34,000 --> 00:40:35,000
behave with one another. 

1468
00:40:35,000 --> 00:40:36,000
What we're finding is that for 

1469
00:40:36,000 --> 00:40:38,000
them the same sorts of variables 

1470
00:40:38,000 --> 00:40:39,000
seem to be important as we think 

1471
00:40:39,000 --> 00:40:41,000
are important for humans as 

1472
00:40:41,000 --> 00:40:42,000
well. 

1473
00:40:42,000 --> 00:40:43,000
And one final point to make 

1474
00:40:43,000 --> 00:40:45,000
about these animals that I found 

1475
00:40:45,000 --> 00:40:46,000
really remarkable is that 

1476
00:40:46,000 --> 00:40:48,000
females, in the pairs that had 

1477
00:40:48,000 --> 00:40:49,000
the highest levels of oxytocin, 

1478
00:40:49,000 --> 00:40:51,000
frequently solicited sex from 

1479
00:40:51,000 --> 00:40:52,000
their partners. 

1480
00:40:52,000 --> 00:40:54,000
And males in those same partners 

1481
00:40:54,000 --> 00:40:56,000
also initiated cuddling and 

1482
00:40:56,000 --> 00:40:57,000
grooming with their partner. 

1483
00:40:57,000 --> 00:40:59,000
So the best pairs, the ones with 

1484
00:40:59,000 --> 00:41:00,000
the highest levels of oxytocin, 

1485
00:41:00,000 --> 00:41:02,000
were the ones where each partner 

1486
00:41:02,000 --> 00:41:04,000
met the needs of their mate. 

1487
00:41:04,000 --> 00:41:06,000
And I think that's something 

1488
00:41:06,000 --> 00:41:08,000
important for us to think about 

1489
00:41:08,000 --> 00:41:09,000
for ourselves, too. 

1490
00:41:09,000 --> 00:41:11,000
So next part I want to talk 

1491
00:41:11,000 --> 00:41:13,000
about briefly is how do males, 

1492
00:41:13,000 --> 00:41:15,000
fathers and brothers, become 

1493
00:41:15,000 --> 00:41:16,000
good infant caretakers, what's 

1494
00:41:16,000 --> 00:41:17,000
the role of learning, and 

1495
00:41:17,000 --> 00:41:19,000
looking at hormonal changes. 

1496
00:41:19,000 --> 00:41:21,000
So I've had to label this figure 

1497
00:41:21,000 --> 00:41:23,000
now male carrying infant because 

1498
00:41:23,000 --> 00:41:24,000
typically when I showed this 

1499
00:41:24,000 --> 00:41:26,000
picture people would say, oh, 

1500
00:41:26,000 --> 00:41:27,000
look at the mother and her baby. 

1501
00:41:27,000 --> 00:41:29,000
And it's almost never the case 

1502
00:41:29,000 --> 00:41:30,000
that you'll see a mother 

1503
00:41:30,000 --> 00:41:32,000
carrying a baby on her back like 

1504
00:41:32,000 --> 00:41:33,000
this. 

1505
00:41:33,000 --> 00:41:34,000
Mothers will carry babies 

1506
00:41:34,000 --> 00:41:36,000
primarily to nurse them, but 

1507
00:41:36,000 --> 00:41:37,000
they rarely carry them on their 

1508
00:41:37,000 --> 00:41:38,000
back. 

1509
00:41:38,000 --> 00:41:40,000
As I've shown you already, it's 

1510
00:41:40,000 --> 00:41:41,000
up to fathers and brothers to do 

1511
00:41:41,000 --> 00:41:42,000
most of the infant carrying. 

1512
00:41:42,000 --> 00:41:44,000
We find that fathers have 

1513
00:41:44,000 --> 00:41:45,000
prolactin levels that are just 

1514
00:41:45,000 --> 00:41:47,000
as high as nursing mothers. 

1515
00:41:47,000 --> 00:41:48,000
So this hormone prolactin, which 

1516
00:41:48,000 --> 00:41:50,000
we used to think about as 

1517
00:41:50,000 --> 00:41:52,000
primarily involved in nursing 

1518
00:41:52,000 --> 00:41:54,000
and producing milk for females, 

1519
00:41:54,000 --> 00:41:56,000
is something that fathers show 

1520
00:41:56,000 --> 00:41:58,000
at the same level as mothers do, 

1521
00:41:58,000 --> 00:42:01,000
but curiously prolactin levels 

1522
00:42:01,000 --> 00:42:03,000
in fathers increase prior to the 

1523
00:42:03,000 --> 00:42:04,000
birth of infants. 

1524
00:42:04,000 --> 00:42:06,000
And we find a lot of other 

1525
00:42:06,000 --> 00:42:08,000
hormonal changes occurring in 

1526
00:42:08,000 --> 00:42:10,000
experienced fathers halfway 

1527
00:42:10,000 --> 00:42:12,000
through their pregnancy. 

1528
00:42:12,000 --> 00:42:14,000
One other thing that turns out 

1529
00:42:14,000 --> 00:42:15,000
to be very important is that 

1530
00:42:15,000 --> 00:42:16,000
mothers must allow fathers and 

1531
00:42:16,000 --> 00:42:18,000
others to access their infants, 

1532
00:42:18,000 --> 00:42:19,000
and I think this also has some 

1533
00:42:19,000 --> 00:42:21,000
relevance for humans as well. 

1534
00:42:21,000 --> 00:42:22,000
This is a complex figure but let 

1535
00:42:22,000 --> 00:42:23,000
me call attention to two major 

1536
00:42:23,000 --> 00:42:25,000
things. 

1537
00:42:25,000 --> 00:42:26,000
One is that the upper graph in 

1538
00:42:26,000 --> 00:42:28,000
every case shows hormone levels 

1539
00:42:28,000 --> 00:42:29,000
for experienced dads and the 

1540
00:42:29,000 --> 00:42:32,000
lower graph, those triangles, 

1541
00:42:32,000 --> 00:42:33,000
shows first time fathers. 

1542
00:42:33,000 --> 00:42:35,000
And you can see that there's 

1543
00:42:35,000 --> 00:42:36,000
some very clear differences 

1544
00:42:36,000 --> 00:42:37,000
between experienced fathers and 

1545
00:42:37,000 --> 00:42:39,000
first time fathers and hormones. 

1546
00:42:39,000 --> 00:42:41,000
Testosterone, not much 

1547
00:42:41,000 --> 00:42:42,000
difference in 

1548
00:42:42,000 --> 00:42:43,000
dihydrotestosterone. 

1549
00:42:43,000 --> 00:42:45,000
But look, here's estradiol and 

1550
00:42:45,000 --> 00:42:47,000
estrone, two female typical 

1551
00:42:47,000 --> 00:42:48,000
hormones which we're seeing 

1552
00:42:48,000 --> 00:42:50,000
develop in males, especially 

1553
00:42:50,000 --> 00:42:52,000
experienced males, over the 

1554
00:42:52,000 --> 00:42:53,000
course of their mate's 

1555
00:42:53,000 --> 00:42:54,000
pregnancy. 

1556
00:42:54,000 --> 00:42:56,000
And we find prolactin levels are 

1557
00:42:56,000 --> 00:42:57,000
changing in experienced fathers 

1558
00:42:57,000 --> 00:42:59,000
fairly early in the pregnancy, 

1559
00:42:59,000 --> 00:43:01,000
but in the last month, first 

1560
00:43:01,000 --> 00:43:03,000
time fathers' prolactin levels 

1561
00:43:03,000 --> 00:43:05,000
also increase as well. 

1562
00:43:05,000 --> 00:43:06,000
So what we have is some 

1563
00:43:06,000 --> 00:43:07,000
remarkable changes in the 

1564
00:43:07,000 --> 00:43:09,000
hormonal milieu of male 

1565
00:43:09,000 --> 00:43:12,000
caretakers during the course of 

1566
00:43:12,000 --> 00:43:13,000
their mate's pregnancy which 

1567
00:43:13,000 --> 00:43:15,000
begs the question how do they 

1568
00:43:15,000 --> 00:43:16,000
know that their mates are 

1569
00:43:16,000 --> 00:43:17,000
pregnant. 

1570
00:43:17,000 --> 00:43:19,000
You come home, a human woman 

1571
00:43:19,000 --> 00:43:21,000
comes home and says, hey honey, 

1572
00:43:21,000 --> 00:43:22,000
guess what? 

1573
00:43:22,000 --> 00:43:24,000
The doctor confirmed that I'm 

1574
00:43:24,000 --> 00:43:25,000
pregnant. 

1575
00:43:25,000 --> 00:43:26,000
And we all rejoice and take 

1576
00:43:26,000 --> 00:43:28,000
pleasure in that, usually. 

1577
00:43:28,000 --> 00:43:30,000
But how does a monkey 

1578
00:43:30,000 --> 00:43:31,000
communicate to her mate that 

1579
00:43:31,000 --> 00:43:33,000
she's pregnant? 

1580
00:43:33,000 --> 00:43:36,000
How does he know halfway through 

1581
00:43:36,000 --> 00:43:37,000
pregnancy to start changing his 

1582
00:43:37,000 --> 00:43:39,000
hormones? 

1583
00:43:39,000 --> 00:43:40,000
The one possibility that we've 

1584
00:43:40,000 --> 00:43:43,000
found is that fathers' hormones 

1585
00:43:43,000 --> 00:43:45,000
start changing, we find a type 

1586
00:43:45,000 --> 00:43:47,000
of hormone called 

1587
00:43:47,000 --> 00:43:48,000
glucocorticoids that starts 

1588
00:43:48,000 --> 00:43:50,000
increasing within a week of when 

1589
00:43:50,000 --> 00:43:52,000
we think the fetal adrenal gland 

1590
00:43:52,000 --> 00:43:53,000
begins to create 

1591
00:43:53,000 --> 00:43:55,000
glucocorticoids, and the mother, 

1592
00:43:55,000 --> 00:43:56,000
stuck with these extra 

1593
00:43:56,000 --> 00:43:58,000
glucocorticoids in her body, 

1594
00:43:58,000 --> 00:44:00,000
excretes them to the outside. 

1595
00:44:00,000 --> 00:44:01,000
So we find that the mother, 

1596
00:44:01,000 --> 00:44:03,000
halfway through her pregnancy, 

1597
00:44:03,000 --> 00:44:05,000
begins excreting very high 

1598
00:44:05,000 --> 00:44:06,000
levels of these stress-like 

1599
00:44:06,000 --> 00:44:08,000
hormones glucocorticoids and 

1600
00:44:08,000 --> 00:44:10,000
within a week of when she starts 

1601
00:44:10,000 --> 00:44:11,000
excreting those hormones, 

1602
00:44:11,000 --> 00:44:14,000
fathers, experienced fathers but 

1603
00:44:14,000 --> 00:44:16,000
not first time dads, start 

1604
00:44:16,000 --> 00:44:17,000
showing changes in their 

1605
00:44:17,000 --> 00:44:19,000
hormones as well. 

1606
00:44:19,000 --> 00:44:20,000
This raises the tantalizing 

1607
00:44:20,000 --> 00:44:22,000
possibility that the fetus is 

1608
00:44:22,000 --> 00:44:24,000
excreting something using the 

1609
00:44:24,000 --> 00:44:26,000
mother as the vehicle to change 

1610
00:44:26,000 --> 00:44:27,000
the behavior of the father and 

1611
00:44:27,000 --> 00:44:29,000
get the father's hormones ready 

1612
00:44:29,000 --> 00:44:31,000
to be prepare. 

1613
00:44:31,000 --> 00:44:34,000
This raises all sorts of 

1614
00:44:34,000 --> 00:44:36,000
questions about, this raises all 

1615
00:44:36,000 --> 00:44:38,000
sorts of questions about human 

1616
00:44:38,000 --> 00:44:40,000
fathers. 

1617
00:44:40,000 --> 00:44:41,000
People have not really looked 

1618
00:44:41,000 --> 00:44:42,000
very closely until very recently 

1619
00:44:42,000 --> 00:44:44,000
at what hormonal changes might 

1620
00:44:44,000 --> 00:44:46,000
occur in human fathers and when 

1621
00:44:46,000 --> 00:44:47,000
in pregnancy do these changes 

1622
00:44:47,000 --> 00:44:49,000
occur. 

1623
00:44:49,000 --> 00:44:50,000
And what this suggests is that 

1624
00:44:50,000 --> 00:44:52,000
there may be some interesting, 

1625
00:44:52,000 --> 00:44:54,000
important hormonal changes that 

1626
00:44:54,000 --> 00:44:55,000
occur in human fathers during 

1627
00:44:55,000 --> 00:44:57,000
their mate's pregnancy and 

1628
00:44:57,000 --> 00:44:58,000
there's also some potential 

1629
00:44:58,000 --> 00:45:00,000
signal mechanisms that we're 

1630
00:45:00,000 --> 00:45:01,000
learning about that are 

1631
00:45:01,000 --> 00:45:03,000
important for what might be cues 

1632
00:45:03,000 --> 00:45:05,000
for males to pay attention to in 

1633
00:45:05,000 --> 00:45:08,000
their pregnant partners. 

1634
00:45:08,000 --> 00:45:10,000
Experienced mothers have to let 

1635
00:45:10,000 --> 00:45:12,000
go, find that they do let others 

1636
00:45:12,000 --> 00:45:14,000
take care of infants but one of 

1637
00:45:14,000 --> 00:45:15,000
the problems with first time 

1638
00:45:15,000 --> 00:45:17,000
mothers is they hold on to their 

1639
00:45:17,000 --> 00:45:18,000
infants. 

1640
00:45:18,000 --> 00:45:19,000
These are data from the wild in 

1641
00:45:19,000 --> 00:45:20,000
Colombia. 

1642
00:45:20,000 --> 00:45:22,000
And what we see is that about 

1643
00:45:22,000 --> 00:45:23,000
90% of the time for week one and 

1644
00:45:23,000 --> 00:45:25,000
week two, first time mothers 

1645
00:45:25,000 --> 00:45:27,000
monopolized control of the baby 

1646
00:45:27,000 --> 00:45:28,000
and rarely let someone else take 

1647
00:45:28,000 --> 00:45:29,000
care of it. 

1648
00:45:29,000 --> 00:45:32,000
By contrast, experienced mothers 

1649
00:45:32,000 --> 00:45:33,000
who had had multiple 

1650
00:45:33,000 --> 00:45:35,000
pregnancies, spend about 50% of 

1651
00:45:35,000 --> 00:45:37,000
the time in the first week 

1652
00:45:37,000 --> 00:45:38,000
taking care of kids, but by the 

1653
00:45:38,000 --> 00:45:40,000
second week they're down to the 

1654
00:45:40,000 --> 00:45:41,000
20% that they're going to spend 

1655
00:45:41,000 --> 00:45:42,000
the rest of the time. 

1656
00:45:42,000 --> 00:45:44,000
So one of the things that 

1657
00:45:44,000 --> 00:45:45,000
becomes really important is if 

1658
00:45:45,000 --> 00:45:47,000
you're going to have other 

1659
00:45:47,000 --> 00:45:48,000
animals or other individuals in 

1660
00:45:48,000 --> 00:45:50,000
your family take care of 

1661
00:45:50,000 --> 00:45:52,000
infants, it's important for 

1662
00:45:52,000 --> 00:45:53,000
mothers to let go of the infant 

1663
00:45:53,000 --> 00:45:54,000
care and let someone else take 

1664
00:45:54,000 --> 00:45:56,000
over. 

1665
00:45:56,000 --> 00:45:57,000
And experienced mothers in 

1666
00:45:57,000 --> 00:45:59,000
tamarin families in the wild 

1667
00:45:59,000 --> 00:46:00,000
seem to know how to do this. 

1668
00:46:00,000 --> 00:46:02,000
First time mothers don't seem to 

1669
00:46:02,000 --> 00:46:03,000
have that skill. 

1670
00:46:03,000 --> 00:46:05,000
How do parents keep others from 

1671
00:46:05,000 --> 00:46:06,000
breeding? 

1672
00:46:06,000 --> 00:46:08,000
There's been a lot of work done 

1673
00:46:08,000 --> 00:46:10,000
on reproductive suppression in 

1674
00:46:10,000 --> 00:46:11,000
tamarins and I just want to 

1675
00:46:11,000 --> 00:46:13,000
touch on this very briefly. 

1676
00:46:13,000 --> 00:46:15,000
This is a study we did looking 

1677
00:46:15,000 --> 00:46:16,000
at 31 animals over the course of 

1678
00:46:16,000 --> 00:46:18,000
a couple years each because we 

1679
00:46:18,000 --> 00:46:20,000
weren't convinced that animals 

1680
00:46:20,000 --> 00:46:22,000
were totally reproductively 

1681
00:46:22,000 --> 00:46:23,000
suppressed. 

1682
00:46:23,000 --> 00:46:25,000
But every single daughter that 

1683
00:46:25,000 --> 00:46:27,000
we looked at never ever did we 

1684
00:46:27,000 --> 00:46:29,000
see any signs of ovulation while 

1685
00:46:29,000 --> 00:46:31,000
animals were living at home. 

1686
00:46:31,000 --> 00:46:33,000
And we wanted to see what the 

1687
00:46:33,000 --> 00:46:35,000
cues were for this so one study 

1688
00:46:35,000 --> 00:46:36,000
we did was to transfer mother's 

1689
00:46:36,000 --> 00:46:38,000
odors to daughter's cages after 

1690
00:46:38,000 --> 00:46:40,000
daughters have been moved to 

1691
00:46:40,000 --> 00:46:41,000
giving a new mate. 

1692
00:46:41,000 --> 00:46:43,000
And we found in every single 

1693
00:46:43,000 --> 00:46:44,000
case that we transferred 

1694
00:46:44,000 --> 00:46:46,000
mother's odors on a daily basis, 

1695
00:46:46,000 --> 00:46:47,000
none of those females ovulated 

1696
00:46:47,000 --> 00:46:49,000
while their mother's odors were 

1697
00:46:49,000 --> 00:46:50,000
being presented. 

1698
00:46:50,000 --> 00:46:52,000
So we find that mother's odors 

1699
00:46:52,000 --> 00:46:53,000
play an important role. 

1700
00:46:53,000 --> 00:46:54,000
But something else is also 

1701
00:46:54,000 --> 00:46:56,000
important. 

1702
00:46:56,000 --> 00:46:57,000
We can take females away from 

1703
00:46:57,000 --> 00:46:59,000
their mother but house them with 

1704
00:46:59,000 --> 00:47:00,000
a familiar male, their father or 

1705
00:47:00,000 --> 00:47:01,000
their brother, and we still 

1706
00:47:01,000 --> 00:47:03,000
don't get any ovulation 

1707
00:47:03,000 --> 00:47:04,000
occurring. 

1708
00:47:04,000 --> 00:47:06,000
And only when animals are either 

1709
00:47:06,000 --> 00:47:07,000
paired with a novel male or 

1710
00:47:07,000 --> 00:47:09,000
housed adjacent to a novel male 

1711
00:47:09,000 --> 00:47:11,000
do we find ovulation being 

1712
00:47:11,000 --> 00:47:12,000
released and occurring. 

1713
00:47:12,000 --> 00:47:14,000
So novel males play a really 

1714
00:47:14,000 --> 00:47:16,000
important role in terms of 

1715
00:47:16,000 --> 00:47:18,000
reproductive suppression as well 

1716
00:47:18,000 --> 00:47:19,000
as to signals and cues from the 

1717
00:47:19,000 --> 00:47:21,000
mother. 

1718
00:47:21,000 --> 00:47:23,000
Both of those are important and 

1719
00:47:23,000 --> 00:47:25,000
I think human families, I 

1720
00:47:25,000 --> 00:47:26,000
suspect a lot of mother/daughter 

1721
00:47:26,000 --> 00:47:27,000
conflict in human families might 

1722
00:47:27,000 --> 00:47:29,000
be alleviated if mothers could 

1723
00:47:29,000 --> 00:47:30,000
be more assured that their 

1724
00:47:30,000 --> 00:47:31,000
daughters were reproductively 

1725
00:47:31,000 --> 00:47:32,000
suppressed while they were going 

1726
00:47:32,000 --> 00:47:34,000
through their teen years. 

1727
00:47:34,000 --> 00:47:35,000
[LAUGHTER] 

1728
00:47:35,000 --> 00:47:37,000
And here we have animals 

1729
00:47:37,000 --> 00:47:38,000
that have very stable family 

1730
00:47:38,000 --> 00:47:39,000
relationships, and it's a 

1731
00:47:39,000 --> 00:47:41,000
nice way to keep others from 

1732
00:47:41,000 --> 00:47:42,000
competing with the mother for 

1733
00:47:42,000 --> 00:47:45,000
the breeding position. 

1734
00:47:45,000 --> 00:47:47,000
And finally, the last part of 

1735
00:47:47,000 --> 00:47:48,000
what I want to talk about is, 

1736
00:47:48,000 --> 00:47:50,000
does cooperative breeding lead 

1737
00:47:50,000 --> 00:47:51,000
to better social learning and 

1738
00:47:51,000 --> 00:47:53,000
cooperation with others? 

1739
00:47:53,000 --> 00:47:54,000
There's been a lot of studies in 

1740
00:47:54,000 --> 00:47:56,000
recent years but I'm going to 

1741
00:47:56,000 --> 00:47:57,000
just give you two examples of 

1742
00:47:57,000 --> 00:47:59,000
how tamarins, in this case, how 

1743
00:47:59,000 --> 00:48:01,000
tamarins rapidly learn about a 

1744
00:48:01,000 --> 00:48:03,000
novel task from watching others. 

1745
00:48:03,000 --> 00:48:04,000
And Liza Moscovice developed a 

1746
00:48:04,000 --> 00:48:06,000
special frame that we could hang 

1747
00:48:06,000 --> 00:48:08,000
inside a cage. 

1748
00:48:08,000 --> 00:48:09,000
There are five different targets 

1749
00:48:09,000 --> 00:48:12,000
here that can hide food. 

1750
00:48:12,000 --> 00:48:14,000
In this case, the food is behind 

1751
00:48:14,000 --> 00:48:16,000
the green door which is propped 

1752
00:48:16,000 --> 00:48:17,000
open and you can see a piece of 

1753
00:48:17,000 --> 00:48:19,000
food here. 

1754
00:48:19,000 --> 00:48:20,000
Each of these other containers 

1755
00:48:20,000 --> 00:48:22,000
has food behind it so that the 

1756
00:48:22,000 --> 00:48:23,000
odor is controlled. 

1757
00:48:23,000 --> 00:48:25,000
And what the animal has to do is 

1758
00:48:25,000 --> 00:48:26,000
to locate the unlocked 

1759
00:48:26,000 --> 00:48:27,000
container, and it has to learn a 

1760
00:48:27,000 --> 00:48:29,000
new motor task because animals 

1761
00:48:29,000 --> 00:48:31,000
have never before had to perch 

1762
00:48:31,000 --> 00:48:33,000
here and use their hand to move 

1763
00:48:33,000 --> 00:48:35,000
a door from one side to the 

1764
00:48:35,000 --> 00:48:36,000
other and reach in with the 

1765
00:48:36,000 --> 00:48:38,000
other hand to get the food. 

1766
00:48:38,000 --> 00:48:39,000
So learning a novel motor task, 

1767
00:48:39,000 --> 00:48:41,000
you also have to learn where the 

1768
00:48:41,000 --> 00:48:42,000
food is located. 

1769
00:48:42,000 --> 00:48:44,000
So we gave individual animals 

1770
00:48:44,000 --> 00:48:45,000
within a pair a chance to learn 

1771
00:48:45,000 --> 00:48:47,000
this task. 

1772
00:48:47,000 --> 00:48:48,000
And then after the task was 

1773
00:48:48,000 --> 00:48:49,000
well-learned, we tested them 

1774
00:48:49,000 --> 00:48:51,000
with their partner, and the 

1775
00:48:51,000 --> 00:48:52,000
really important information 

1776
00:48:52,000 --> 00:48:54,000
here is how quickly does the 

1777
00:48:54,000 --> 00:48:55,000
partner learn when its mate 

1778
00:48:55,000 --> 00:48:56,000
already knows how to solve the 

1779
00:48:56,000 --> 00:48:58,000
task. 

1780
00:48:58,000 --> 00:48:59,000
And what we found was that 

1781
00:48:59,000 --> 00:49:02,000
social learners, the partners 

1782
00:49:02,000 --> 00:49:03,000
were really interested in the 

1783
00:49:03,000 --> 00:49:04,000
apparatus, they followed very 

1784
00:49:04,000 --> 00:49:06,000
closely on the demonstrator and 

1785
00:49:06,000 --> 00:49:07,000
very quickly learned the correct 

1786
00:49:07,000 --> 00:49:09,000
site. 

1787
00:49:09,000 --> 00:49:10,000
When they got there, they also 

1788
00:49:10,000 --> 00:49:11,000
learned how to master this novel 

1789
00:49:11,000 --> 00:49:14,000
task of moving the door open. 

1790
00:49:14,000 --> 00:49:16,000
But when these animals came, 

1791
00:49:16,000 --> 00:49:18,000
this animal had already taken 

1792
00:49:18,000 --> 00:49:19,000
the food. 

1793
00:49:19,000 --> 00:49:21,000
So we have animals that have 

1794
00:49:21,000 --> 00:49:22,000
learned a new task, a novel 

1795
00:49:22,000 --> 00:49:24,000
motor skill, without ever 

1796
00:49:24,000 --> 00:49:25,000
getting reinforced for doing it 

1797
00:49:25,000 --> 00:49:27,000
but they're doing it in part 

1798
00:49:27,000 --> 00:49:29,000
because their partner has just 

1799
00:49:29,000 --> 00:49:30,000
done it in front of them. 

1800
00:49:30,000 --> 00:49:32,000
And if we look at how quickly 

1801
00:49:32,000 --> 00:49:34,000
they learn to get to a novel 

1802
00:49:34,000 --> 00:49:35,000
forage site, within eight trials 

1803
00:49:35,000 --> 00:49:38,000
all eight animals that were 

1804
00:49:38,000 --> 00:49:40,000
tested socially acquired the 

1805
00:49:40,000 --> 00:49:42,000
test within just eight session, 

1806
00:49:42,000 --> 00:49:44,000
eight chances to learn this. 

1807
00:49:44,000 --> 00:49:46,000
Individual learners took a lot 

1808
00:49:46,000 --> 00:49:47,000
longer. 

1809
00:49:47,000 --> 00:49:49,000
Only two of them learned a task 

1810
00:49:49,000 --> 00:49:51,000
within eight trials. 

1811
00:49:51,000 --> 00:49:53,000
And animals who were just 

1812
00:49:53,000 --> 00:49:55,000
allowed to interact socially 

1813
00:49:55,000 --> 00:49:56,000
with each other without anyone 

1814
00:49:56,000 --> 00:49:58,000
knowing what to do, not a single 

1815
00:49:58,000 --> 00:49:59,000
one of them solved this task 

1816
00:49:59,000 --> 00:50:01,000
within eight days of testing. 

1817
00:50:01,000 --> 00:50:03,000
So social learning occurred much 

1818
00:50:03,000 --> 00:50:05,000
faster than I've seen occur in 

1819
00:50:05,000 --> 00:50:07,000
any other chimpanzee study, and 

1820
00:50:07,000 --> 00:50:09,000
it occurred without any rewards. 

1821
00:50:09,000 --> 00:50:11,000
And when we tested these animals 

1822
00:50:11,000 --> 00:50:12,000
a year and a half later, they 

1823
00:50:12,000 --> 00:50:14,000
were still able to solve the 

1824
00:50:14,000 --> 00:50:15,000
problem right away. 

1825
00:50:15,000 --> 00:50:17,000
So they had a long-term memory 

1826
00:50:17,000 --> 00:50:19,000
for how to solve the task. 

1827
00:50:19,000 --> 00:50:20,000
So some other examples that 

1828
00:50:20,000 --> 00:50:22,000
we've done, we find more rapid 

1829
00:50:22,000 --> 00:50:23,000
reversal learning than any other 

1830
00:50:23,000 --> 00:50:24,000
species to date. 

1831
00:50:24,000 --> 00:50:26,000
We find that animals teach their 

1832
00:50:26,000 --> 00:50:27,000
young about what food to eat and 

1833
00:50:27,000 --> 00:50:29,000
how to eat. 

1834
00:50:29,000 --> 00:50:31,000
We find that adults will help 

1835
00:50:31,000 --> 00:50:32,000
their juvenile kids learn how to 

1836
00:50:32,000 --> 00:50:34,000
solve tasks. 

1837
00:50:34,000 --> 00:50:35,000
When they're presented with a 

1838
00:50:35,000 --> 00:50:37,000
novel and difficult task, 

1839
00:50:37,000 --> 00:50:38,000
parents will spend time helping 

1840
00:50:38,000 --> 00:50:40,000
them, but they don't help each 

1841
00:50:40,000 --> 00:50:41,000
other when they are adults. 

1842
00:50:41,000 --> 00:50:43,000
And we found no evidence of 

1843
00:50:43,000 --> 00:50:44,000
teaching in chimpanzees that's 

1844
00:50:44,000 --> 00:50:46,000
anywhere comparable to the types 

1845
00:50:46,000 --> 00:50:48,000
of scaffolding behavior and 

1846
00:50:48,000 --> 00:50:49,000
teaching that we find in 

1847
00:50:49,000 --> 00:50:51,000
tamarins. 

1848
00:50:51,000 --> 00:50:52,000
So again we find a clear 

1849
00:50:52,000 --> 00:50:54,000
difference between what tamarins 

1850
00:50:54,000 --> 00:50:55,000
are able to do and what 

1851
00:50:55,000 --> 00:50:56,000
chimpanzees do. 

1852
00:50:56,000 --> 00:50:58,000
This has led some 

1853
00:50:58,000 --> 00:50:59,000
anthropologists to start 

1854
00:50:59,000 --> 00:51:01,000
speculating on the idea that 

1855
00:51:01,000 --> 00:51:02,000
maybe cooperative breeding is an 

1856
00:51:02,000 --> 00:51:04,000
important type of social system 

1857
00:51:04,000 --> 00:51:05,000
that fosters teaching and social 

1858
00:51:05,000 --> 00:51:07,000
learning. 

1859
00:51:07,000 --> 00:51:08,000
And one theory has recently 

1860
00:51:08,000 --> 00:51:10,000
argued that we've learned, we as 

1861
00:51:10,000 --> 00:51:11,000
humans have acquired a lot of 

1862
00:51:11,000 --> 00:51:13,000
technical ability to learn about 

1863
00:51:13,000 --> 00:51:15,000
tasks from other animals like 

1864
00:51:15,000 --> 00:51:16,000
chimpanzees that have large 

1865
00:51:16,000 --> 00:51:18,000
brains and can learn individual 

1866
00:51:18,000 --> 00:51:21,000
tasks really quickly, but what 

1867
00:51:21,000 --> 00:51:23,000
makes us uniquely human is the 

1868
00:51:23,000 --> 00:51:25,000
ability to combine the learning 

1869
00:51:25,000 --> 00:51:27,000
types that chimpanzees do 

1870
00:51:27,000 --> 00:51:29,000
readily with the type of social 

1871
00:51:29,000 --> 00:51:30,000
learning and teaching behavior 

1872
00:51:30,000 --> 00:51:32,000
that tamarins show and that, 

1873
00:51:32,000 --> 00:51:33,000
therefore, the combination of 

1874
00:51:33,000 --> 00:51:35,000
these two sets of skills, the 

1875
00:51:35,000 --> 00:51:37,000
big brain of chimpanzees and the 

1876
00:51:37,000 --> 00:51:39,000
social environment of family 

1877
00:51:39,000 --> 00:51:41,000
living, might contribute to the 

1878
00:51:41,000 --> 00:51:43,000
complex cognition that we humans 

1879
00:51:43,000 --> 00:51:44,000
show. 

1880
00:51:44,000 --> 00:51:46,000
Tamarins naturally cooperate 

1881
00:51:46,000 --> 00:51:48,000
with each other. 

1882
00:51:48,000 --> 00:51:49,000
Here's a apparatus where there 

1883
00:51:49,000 --> 00:51:51,000
are two pieces of raisins and 

1884
00:51:51,000 --> 00:51:53,000
both animals have to pull these 

1885
00:51:53,000 --> 00:51:54,000
trays simultaneously from either 

1886
00:51:54,000 --> 00:51:55,000
end in order for anyone to get 

1887
00:51:55,000 --> 00:51:56,000
the food. 

1888
00:51:56,000 --> 00:51:58,000
And we find that they learn that 

1889
00:51:58,000 --> 00:51:59,000
spontaneously very, very 

1890
00:51:59,000 --> 00:52:00,000
quickly. 

1891
00:52:00,000 --> 00:52:01,000
We can also manipulate the 

1892
00:52:01,000 --> 00:52:02,000
apparatus. 

1893
00:52:02,000 --> 00:52:04,000
This is showing a diagram, and 

1894
00:52:04,000 --> 00:52:05,000
there are two holes that can be 

1895
00:52:05,000 --> 00:52:07,000
lined up. 

1896
00:52:07,000 --> 00:52:08,000
We can either have two pieces of 

1897
00:52:08,000 --> 00:52:10,000
food, one on either side, or we 

1898
00:52:10,000 --> 00:52:11,000
can have a piece of food so that 

1899
00:52:11,000 --> 00:52:13,000
only one animal gets rewarded 

1900
00:52:13,000 --> 00:52:14,000
but both animals still have to 

1901
00:52:14,000 --> 00:52:16,000
pull for the reward to be 

1902
00:52:16,000 --> 00:52:17,000
obtained. 

1903
00:52:17,000 --> 00:52:19,000
We can have a single reward in 

1904
00:52:19,000 --> 00:52:20,000
the middle or we can place the 

1905
00:52:20,000 --> 00:52:22,000
reward over here by one animal 

1906
00:52:22,000 --> 00:52:25,000
but we have this trough that 

1907
00:52:25,000 --> 00:52:27,000
lets the food reward roll down 

1908
00:52:27,000 --> 00:52:28,000
and go to the animal on the 

1909
00:52:28,000 --> 00:52:30,000
other side of the cage. 

1910
00:52:30,000 --> 00:52:32,000
One of the interesting questions 

1911
00:52:32,000 --> 00:52:34,000
is, how well do animals solve 

1912
00:52:34,000 --> 00:52:35,000
these things as a function of 

1913
00:52:35,000 --> 00:52:38,000
whether they're always getting 

1914
00:52:38,000 --> 00:52:39,000
reward or not? 

1915
00:52:39,000 --> 00:52:41,000
So here we see where both 

1916
00:52:41,000 --> 00:52:42,000
animals are getting rewarded the 

1917
00:52:42,000 --> 00:52:44,000
solution rate is about 98% of 

1918
00:52:44,000 --> 00:52:45,000
the time. 

1919
00:52:45,000 --> 00:52:46,000
Even when there's reciprocity, 

1920
00:52:46,000 --> 00:52:48,000
when I get the food today and I 

1921
00:52:48,000 --> 00:52:50,000
get all the pieces of food but 

1922
00:52:50,000 --> 00:52:51,000
you get it tomorrow, there's 

1923
00:52:51,000 --> 00:52:53,000
still a very high level of 

1924
00:52:53,000 --> 00:52:54,000
cooperation. 

1925
00:52:54,000 --> 00:52:56,000
Both animals still continue pull 

1926
00:52:56,000 --> 00:52:57,000
at a very high rate. 

1927
00:52:57,000 --> 00:52:59,000
When the food is available and 

1928
00:52:59,000 --> 00:53:00,000
we both have to scramble to get 

1929
00:53:00,000 --> 00:53:02,000
it, still is pulled at a high 

1930
00:53:02,000 --> 00:53:03,000
rate. 

1931
00:53:03,000 --> 00:53:04,000
And even when the reward is 

1932
00:53:04,000 --> 00:53:06,000
being delivered to the animal on 

1933
00:53:06,000 --> 00:53:07,000
the opposite side of the 

1934
00:53:07,000 --> 00:53:08,000
apparatus, the animals still 

1935
00:53:08,000 --> 00:53:10,000
continue to perform about 50% of 

1936
00:53:10,000 --> 00:53:11,000
the time. 

1937
00:53:11,000 --> 00:53:13,000
And I want to contrast this with 

1938
00:53:13,000 --> 00:53:14,000
work on capuchin monkeys which 

1939
00:53:14,000 --> 00:53:16,000
are oftentimes talked about as a 

1940
00:53:16,000 --> 00:53:19,000
model smart monkey. 

1941
00:53:19,000 --> 00:53:21,000
And you can see that when 

1942
00:53:21,000 --> 00:53:23,000
someone else did the same 

1943
00:53:23,000 --> 00:53:24,000
parallel types of tests with 

1944
00:53:24,000 --> 00:53:26,000
capuchin monkeys, they solved 

1945
00:53:26,000 --> 00:53:28,000
the mutual task much less often 

1946
00:53:28,000 --> 00:53:30,000
and when reciprocity was 

1947
00:53:30,000 --> 00:53:32,000
involved, they showed only half 

1948
00:53:32,000 --> 00:53:33,000
as many correct solutions as 

1949
00:53:33,000 --> 00:53:35,000
tamarins do. 

1950
00:53:35,000 --> 00:53:37,000
So again we have mutualism and 

1951
00:53:37,000 --> 00:53:39,000
reciprocal reward with success 

1952
00:53:39,000 --> 00:53:41,000
rates much higher for tamarins 

1953
00:53:41,000 --> 00:53:42,000
than for capuchins and 

1954
00:53:42,000 --> 00:53:44,000
chimpanzees tested in similar 

1955
00:53:44,000 --> 00:53:45,000
ways. 

1956
00:53:45,000 --> 00:53:47,000
So to summarize and finish up, 

1957
00:53:47,000 --> 00:53:49,000
cotton-top tamarins are highly 

1958
00:53:49,000 --> 00:53:50,000
endangered species, very 

1959
00:53:50,000 --> 00:53:52,000
vulnerable to extinction in the 

1960
00:53:52,000 --> 00:53:53,000
wild. 

1961
00:53:53,000 --> 00:53:54,000
We've been able to create a 

1962
00:53:54,000 --> 00:53:56,000
successful captive breeding 

1963
00:53:56,000 --> 00:53:57,000
program starting with 11 monkeys 

1964
00:53:57,000 --> 00:53:59,000
30 years ago, and we've donated 

1965
00:53:59,000 --> 00:54:01,000
close to 300 monkeys to other 

1966
00:54:01,000 --> 00:54:02,000
places as a result of our 

1967
00:54:02,000 --> 00:54:04,000
success in captive breeding. 

1968
00:54:04,000 --> 00:54:07,000
We think part of our success is 

1969
00:54:07,000 --> 00:54:08,000
due to housing monkeys as 

1970
00:54:08,000 --> 00:54:10,000
families in large naturalistic 

1971
00:54:10,000 --> 00:54:12,000
cages and keeping offspring at 

1972
00:54:12,000 --> 00:54:14,000
home long enough to be able to 

1973
00:54:14,000 --> 00:54:15,000
learn parenting skills before 

1974
00:54:15,000 --> 00:54:17,000
they go off and try to parent on 

1975
00:54:17,000 --> 00:54:18,000
their own. 

1976
00:54:18,000 --> 00:54:20,000
And as I've tried to indicate, 

1977
00:54:20,000 --> 00:54:21,000
lots of other skills have to be 

1978
00:54:21,000 --> 00:54:22,000
learned as well. 

1979
00:54:22,000 --> 00:54:24,000
When we started using 

1980
00:54:24,000 --> 00:54:25,000
noninvasive methods we met with 

1981
00:54:25,000 --> 00:54:26,000
a great deal of skepticism 

1982
00:54:26,000 --> 00:54:28,000
because the traditional way of 

1983
00:54:28,000 --> 00:54:29,000
doing research was to use more 

1984
00:54:29,000 --> 00:54:31,000
invasive ways. 

1985
00:54:31,000 --> 00:54:34,000
Thanks to Toni Ziegler, we've 

1986
00:54:34,000 --> 00:54:36,000
within able to pioneer new 

1987
00:54:36,000 --> 00:54:38,000
noninvasive methods for studying 

1988
00:54:38,000 --> 00:54:39,000
hormones and expand them to a 

1989
00:54:39,000 --> 00:54:41,000
whole variety of species, and I 

1990
00:54:41,000 --> 00:54:43,000
think these methods are now the 

1991
00:54:43,000 --> 00:54:45,000
gold standard for field research 

1992
00:54:45,000 --> 00:54:46,000
with nonhuman primates and lots 

1993
00:54:46,000 --> 00:54:48,000
of other animals as well. 

1994
00:54:48,000 --> 00:54:50,000
So we have a very successful 

1995
00:54:50,000 --> 00:54:53,000
selling or extension of the work 

1996
00:54:53,000 --> 00:54:56,000
that began with tamarins to 

1997
00:54:56,000 --> 00:54:58,000
affect lots of wild populations 

1998
00:54:58,000 --> 00:55:00,000
as well. 

1999
00:55:00,000 --> 00:55:01,000
Other noninvasive methods that 

2000
00:55:01,000 --> 00:55:03,000
we developed have minimized 

2001
00:55:03,000 --> 00:55:04,000
handling of animals and allowed 

2002
00:55:04,000 --> 00:55:06,000
us to test animals in their home 

2003
00:55:06,000 --> 00:55:07,000
cages. 

2004
00:55:07,000 --> 00:55:08,000
A very important point is that 

2005
00:55:08,000 --> 00:55:10,000
we treated tamarins as our 

2006
00:55:10,000 --> 00:55:11,000
research partners. 

2007
00:55:11,000 --> 00:55:12,000
They're not subjects, they're 

2008
00:55:12,000 --> 00:55:13,000
our partners in research, and I 

2009
00:55:13,000 --> 00:55:15,000
think it's a very important 

2010
00:55:15,000 --> 00:55:17,000
mind set to have when you're 

2011
00:55:17,000 --> 00:55:18,000
working with nonhuman primates 

2012
00:55:18,000 --> 00:55:19,000
is to think of them as your 

2013
00:55:19,000 --> 00:55:21,000
research partners. 

2014
00:55:21,000 --> 00:55:22,000
Without their cooperation and 

2015
00:55:22,000 --> 00:55:24,000
collaboration we're not going to 

2016
00:55:24,000 --> 00:55:25,000
get very good research data, nor 

2017
00:55:25,000 --> 00:55:27,000
are we going to be as successful 

2018
00:55:27,000 --> 00:55:28,000
as we'd like to be in terms of 

2019
00:55:28,000 --> 00:55:30,000
maintaining them and breeding 

2020
00:55:30,000 --> 00:55:32,000
them into the future. 

2021
00:55:32,000 --> 00:55:33,000
Noninvasive hormone sampling 

2022
00:55:33,000 --> 00:55:35,000
allowed us to monitor 

2023
00:55:35,000 --> 00:55:36,000
reproduction but also allowed us 

2024
00:55:36,000 --> 00:55:37,000
to ask about hormonal changes 

2025
00:55:37,000 --> 00:55:39,000
leading fathers to parenting and 

2026
00:55:39,000 --> 00:55:40,000
why daughters do not ovulate. 

2027
00:55:40,000 --> 00:55:42,000
Results suggest new ways for 

2028
00:55:42,000 --> 00:55:43,000
thinking about increasing 

2029
00:55:43,000 --> 00:55:45,000
involvement by human fathers and 

2030
00:55:45,000 --> 00:55:47,000
care taking and has led very 

2031
00:55:47,000 --> 00:55:49,000
recently to new studies looking 

2032
00:55:49,000 --> 00:55:51,000
at hormone changes in fathers 

2033
00:55:51,000 --> 00:55:53,000
across pregnancy. 

2034
00:55:53,000 --> 00:55:55,000
Also helps us stress the role of 

2035
00:55:55,000 --> 00:55:57,000
experience. 

2036
00:55:57,000 --> 00:55:58,000
We require drivers training but 

2037
00:55:58,000 --> 00:56:00,000
not parent training, as I said 

2038
00:56:00,000 --> 00:56:01,000
earlier. 

2039
00:56:01,000 --> 00:56:03,000
And mothers have to learn to let 

2040
00:56:03,000 --> 00:56:04,000
go of infants and let others 

2041
00:56:04,000 --> 00:56:06,000
take care of them. 

2042
00:56:06,000 --> 00:56:07,000
Finally, tamarins show rapid 

2043
00:56:07,000 --> 00:56:09,000
social learning, teaching 

2044
00:56:09,000 --> 00:56:10,000
behavior, and cooperation that's 

2045
00:56:10,000 --> 00:56:12,000
not seen in most other nonhuman 

2046
00:56:12,000 --> 00:56:13,000
primates, but it's really 

2047
00:56:13,000 --> 00:56:15,000
similar to skills we see in 

2048
00:56:15,000 --> 00:56:16,000
humans. 

2049
00:56:16,000 --> 00:56:18,000
So does cooperative breeding 

2050
00:56:18,000 --> 00:56:19,000
foster these skills, and, in 

2051
00:56:19,000 --> 00:56:20,000
addition to the cognitive skills 

2052
00:56:20,000 --> 00:56:21,000
of apes, is this what leads us 

2053
00:56:21,000 --> 00:56:22,000
to make humans unique. 

2054
00:56:22,000 --> 00:56:24,000
Tamarins are not little human 

2055
00:56:24,000 --> 00:56:26,000
beings but humane, noninvasive 

2056
00:56:26,000 --> 00:56:27,000
research can not only help 

2057
00:56:27,000 --> 00:56:29,000
preserve the tamarins on into 

2058
00:56:29,000 --> 00:56:30,000
the future but help us gain 

2059
00:56:30,000 --> 00:56:32,000
insights into human behavior. 

2060
00:56:32,000 --> 00:56:34,000
Before I close, I want to 

2061
00:56:34,000 --> 00:56:35,000
acknowledge that I've been 

2062
00:56:35,000 --> 00:56:37,000
supported and blessed with a 

2063
00:56:37,000 --> 00:56:39,000
large team of really wonderful 

2064
00:56:39,000 --> 00:56:40,000
collaborators over the years. 

2065
00:56:40,000 --> 00:56:42,000
And this is just a few of them, 

2066
00:56:42,000 --> 00:56:44,000
people who've been involved in 

2067
00:56:44,000 --> 00:56:45,000
the work that I talked about 

2068
00:56:45,000 --> 00:56:47,000
tonight, but I've been really 

2069
00:56:47,000 --> 00:56:49,000
delighted to have such a large 

2070
00:56:49,000 --> 00:56:51,000
group of people who are all 

2071
00:56:51,000 --> 00:56:52,000
committed to the well-being and 

2072
00:56:52,000 --> 00:56:54,000
safe care and careful care of 

2073
00:56:54,000 --> 00:56:56,000
these animals where always the 

2074
00:56:56,000 --> 00:56:58,000
first priority was to maintain 

2075
00:56:58,000 --> 00:56:59,000
the animal's health and 

2076
00:56:59,000 --> 00:57:00,000
well-being as our first 

2077
00:57:00,000 --> 00:57:02,000
priority. 

2078
00:57:02,000 --> 00:57:03,000
I also want to acknowledge my 

2079
00:57:03,000 --> 00:57:05,000
wife, Ann Lindsey, who is a good 

2080
00:57:05,000 --> 00:57:07,000
critic, a very good critic, and 

2081
00:57:07,000 --> 00:57:10,000
helped me change a lot of 

2082
00:57:10,000 --> 00:57:12,000
things. 

2083
00:57:12,000 --> 00:57:13,000
And also, for those of you 

2084
00:57:13,000 --> 00:57:14,000
interested in learning more 

2085
00:57:14,000 --> 00:57:15,000
about cotton-top conservation, 

2086
00:57:15,000 --> 00:57:17,000
I want to refer you to a really 

2087
00:57:17,000 --> 00:57:18,000
important website that Anne 

2088
00:57:18,000 --> 00:57:19,000
Savage has developed, 

2089
00:57:19,000 --> 00:57:21,000
ProyectoTiti.com. 

2090
00:57:21,000 --> 00:57:23,000
It's a good way to learn a lot 

2091
00:57:23,000 --> 00:57:24,000
about the status of tamarins in 

2092
00:57:24,000 --> 00:57:25,000
the wild and learn a lot more 

2093
00:57:25,000 --> 00:57:26,000
about their behavior, and also, 

2094
00:57:26,000 --> 00:57:27,000
if you would like to donate for 

2095
00:57:27,000 --> 00:57:29,000
cotton-top tamarin conservation, 

2096
00:57:29,000 --> 00:57:31,000
it's a very good place to go and 

2097
00:57:31,000 --> 00:57:33,000
be able to make donations. 

2098
00:57:33,000 --> 00:57:34,000
And I'll stop here and see if 

2099
00:57:34,000 --> 00:57:35,000
anyone has any questions. 

2100
00:57:35,000 --> 00:57:37,000
Thank you very much. 

2101
00:57:37,000 --> 00:57:41,000
[APPLAUSE]